Buy Titagarh Industries.
BackGround:
Titagarh Industries (www.titagarh.biz) located in kolkata, they have spread their business in the following sectors:
Wagon Manufacture,Special Projects ,Heavy Earth Moving & Mining Equipment ,Foundry Division ,Rail Coach ,Special Projects,Heavy Earth Moving & Mining Equipment,Foundry Division ,Rail Coach
Market News:
GE Equipment Services, part of GE India, Monday announced a strategic tie-up with Indian wagon-maker Titagarh Wagons Ltd. (TWL) to develop and upgrade India's railway infrastructure.
GE Equipment Services, which picked up 15 percent equity in Kolkata-based TWL, would also become its preferred provider of vendor financing.
'This partnership would be a major step towards our efforts in increasing our footprint in India. We are going to make many such strategic partnerships and investments that would advance India's infrastructure,' Dhananjay Nalawade, president of GE Equipment Services, told reporters here.
Reiterating the company's vision to become a $8 billion entity by 2010, Nalawade said a major portion of the revenue would be contributed by the Equipment Services business.
'Our alliance with GE is to offer innovative value added proposition to the ultimate customers,' said Umesh Chowdhary, managing director, TWL.
'We would also explore other business opportunities through this tie-up like exporting wagons to other countries where GE already has wagon fleets operating,' Chowdhary added.
Plzz Visit website: http://www.indiaprwire.com/businessnews/20070723/23579.htm
CMP: Rs 37 Target Rs 100 by April'2008
Long term target Rs 300 by End'2008
Thursday, February 28, 2008
Monday, February 25, 2008
An article:BUTANOL PRODUCTION FROM AGRICULTURAL BIOMASS -
Publication Date: October 1, 2005 Abstract only
-->Citation: Qureshi, N., Blaschek, H.P. 2006. Butanol production from agricultural biomass. In: Shetty, K., Paliyath, G., Pometto, A., Levin, R.E., editors. Food Biotechnology. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. p. 525-549.
Technical Abstract: This is a summary of an invited chapter (Butanol production from agricultural biomass) to be published in "Food Biotechnology." Butanol is an excellent fuel which can be produced from various agricultural products, byproducts, and waste products. These include corn, corn fiber, potato and potato waste, whey permeate, molasses, fruit industry waste, wheat straw, rice husk, corn stalk, etc. The chapter details suitable substrates that can be used effectively using various butanol producing cultures (including Clostribium acetobutylicum, C. beijerinskii, etc.). It also details various upstream processing steps that are necessary prior to butanol fermentation. In addition, technologies that may make butanol fermentation economically viable have been discussed. Other aspects such as recovery of butanol using economically viable techniques, process integration, genetics of C. beijerinskii, and sugar transport in butanol producing culture(s) have also been discussed.
-->Citation: Qureshi, N., Blaschek, H.P. 2006. Butanol production from agricultural biomass. In: Shetty, K., Paliyath, G., Pometto, A., Levin, R.E., editors. Food Biotechnology. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. p. 525-549.
Technical Abstract: This is a summary of an invited chapter (Butanol production from agricultural biomass) to be published in "Food Biotechnology." Butanol is an excellent fuel which can be produced from various agricultural products, byproducts, and waste products. These include corn, corn fiber, potato and potato waste, whey permeate, molasses, fruit industry waste, wheat straw, rice husk, corn stalk, etc. The chapter details suitable substrates that can be used effectively using various butanol producing cultures (including Clostribium acetobutylicum, C. beijerinskii, etc.). It also details various upstream processing steps that are necessary prior to butanol fermentation. In addition, technologies that may make butanol fermentation economically viable have been discussed. Other aspects such as recovery of butanol using economically viable techniques, process integration, genetics of C. beijerinskii, and sugar transport in butanol producing culture(s) have also been discussed.
B100 – B100 is another name for pure biodiesel.
Bio Diesel Terminology:
Here I posted some terminologies used in bio-diesel Process:
Algae – Algae are primitive plants, usually aquatic, capable of synthesising their own food by photosynthesis. Algae is currently being investigated as a possible feedstock for producing biodiesel
Biobutanol – Biobutanol is an advantaged biofuel that offers a number of benefits over conventional biofuels. For example, biobutanol has an energy content closer to that of petroleum so consumers face less of a compromise on fuel economy. It can easily be added to conventional petrol due to low vapour pressure and can be blended at higher concentrations than bioethanol for use in standard vehicle engines. DuPont and BP are working together on a major project to produce biobutanol
Biodiesel – Biodiesel is a biofuel produced from various feedstocks including vegetable oils (such as oilseed, rapeseed and soya bean), animal fats or algae. Biodiesel can be blended with diesel for use in diesel engine vehicles.
Biofuel – The term biofuel applies to any solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel produced from organic (once-living) matter. The word biofuel covers a wide range of products, some of which are commercially available today, and some of which are still in research and development.
Biomass – Biomass is biological material, including corn, switchgrass, and oilseed crops, that can be converted into fuel
Bioreactor – A bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process occurs. This usually involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms
BTL – BTL, or biomass-to-liquid,is a multi-step process which converts biomass into liquid biofuels. BTL is also referred to as second generation biodiesel production. There are many different methods of BTL, but many processes include Fischer-Tropsch, hydrogenation or pyrolysis.
By-product – A by-product is a substance, other than the principal product, generated as a consequence of creating a biofuel. For example, a by-product of biodiesel production is glycerine and a by-product of bioethanol production is DDGS
Catalyst – A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without being consumed or produced by the reaction. Enzymes are catalysts for many biochemical reactions.
Cetane number – The cetane number is a measure of biodiesel’s combustion quality
Conventional biofuels - Conventional biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are typically made from corn, sugarcane and beet, wheat or oilseed crops such as soy and rape.
DDGS – DDGS, or dried distillers grain with solubles is a by-product of dry mill ethanol production that is fed to livestock.
Emissions: Emissions are classed as any waste substances released into the air or water.
Enzyme: An enzyme is a protein or protein-based molecule that speeds up chemical reactions occurring in living things. Enzymes act as catalysts for a single reaction, converting a specific set of reactants into specific products.
FAME – FAME, or fatty acid methyl ester can be created by a catalysed reaction between fatty acids and methanol. The molecules in biodiesel are primarily FAMEs, usually obtained from vegetable oils by transesterification.
Fatty acid: A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (an acid with a -COOH group) with long hydrocarbon side chains. Feedstocks are first converted to fatty acids and then to biodiesel
Feedstock – A feedstock is any biomass resource destined for conversion to energy or biofuel. For example, corn is a feedstock for ethanol production, soybean oil may be a feedstock for biodiesel and cellulosic biomass has the potential to be a significant feedstock source for biofuels.
Fischer-Tropsch – Fischer-Tropsch is one method of producing biodiesel, from natural gas or syngas from gasified coal or biomass
Fuel - A fuel is described as any material with one type of energy that can be converted to another usable energy.
Glycerine- Glycerine is a liquid by-product of biodiesel production. Glycerine is used in the manufacture of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, inks, and lubricants.
GTL – GTL, or gas to liquid, is a refinery process which converts natural gas into longer-chain hydrocarbons. Gas can be converted to liquid fuels via a direct conversion or using a process such as Fischer-Tropsch.
Iodine value – An iodine value is a measure of the number of unsaturated carbon-carbon double bonds in a vegetable oil molecule. In liquid biofuel applications this gives a lower cold filter plugging point (CFPP) or cloud point. While this makes it good for use in cooler temperatures, double bonds can allow polymerisation, leading to the formation of lacquers and possibly blockage and damage to engine or fuel train components
Jatropha - Jatropha is a non-edible evergreen shrub found in Asia, Africa and the West Indies. Its seeds contain a high proportion of oil which can be used for making biodiesel.
Methanol – Methanol is an alcohol containing one carbon atom per molecule, generally made from natural gas, with about half the energy density of petroleum. Methanol is used as a component in the transesterification of triglycerides to give a form of biodiesel.
MTBE – MTBE, or methyl tertiary-butyl ether, is created from methanol and can increase octane and decrease the volatility of petroleum. It is often used as a petroleum additive because it raises the oxygen content of the fuel.
Nitrogen Oxides – Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) are a product of photochemical reactions of nitric oxide in ambient air, and are one type of emission produces from fuels.
Octane number - The octane rating of a fuel is indicated on the pump. The higher the number, the slower the fuel burns. Bioethanol typically adds two to three octane numbers when blended with ordinary petroleum – making it a cost-effective octane-enhancer.
Palm oil – Palm oil is a form of vegetable oil obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree. It is a widely used feedstock The palm oil and palm kernel oil are composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol just like any ordinary fat. Palm oil is a widely used feedstock for traditional biodiesel production.
Petroleum - Petroleum refers to any petroleum-based substance comprising of a complex blend of hydrocarbons derived from crude oil through the process of separation, conversion, upgrading, and finishing, including motor fuel, jet oil, lubricants, petroleum solvents, and used oil.
Pyrolysis – Pyrolysis is one method of converting biomass into biodiesel, using heat.
Pyrolysis oil – Pyrolysis oil is a bio-oil produced by fast pyrolysis of biomass. It is a dark brown, mobile liquid containing much of the energy content of the original biomass, with a heating value about half that of conventional fuel oil. Conversion of raw biomass to pyrolysis oil represents a considerable increase in energy density and it can thus represent a more efficient form in which to transport it.
Rapeseed - Rapeseed (Brassica napus), also known as rape, oilseed rape or (one particular artificial variety) canola, is a bright yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family). Rapeseed is a tradition feedstock used for biodiesel production.
RTFO – RTFO, or the Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation, is a UK policy that places an obligation on fuel suppliers to ensure that a certain percentage of their aggregate sales is made up of biofuels. The effect of this will be to require 5% of all UK fuel sold on UK forecourts to come from a renewable source by 2010.
Second generation biofuels – Although definitions vary, second generation biofuels are usually considered to be biofuels produced from biomass or non-edible feedstocks.
Syngas – Syngas is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) which is the product of high temperature gasification of organic material such as biomass. Following clean-up to remove any impurities such as tars, synthesis gas (syngas) can be used to synthesise organic molecules such as synthetic natural gas (SNG - methane (CH4)) or liquid biofuels such as synthetic diesel (via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis).
Switchgrass – Switchgrass is native to the US and known for its hardiness and rapid growth. It is often cited as a potentially abundant second generation feedstock for ethanol
Tallow – Tallow is another name for animal fat, which can be used as a feedstock for biodiesel production.
Transesterification – The name biodiesel has been given to transesterified vegetable oil to describe its use as a diesel fuel. The transesterification process involves mixing at room temperature methanol (50% excess) with NaOH (100% excess), then mixing vigorously with vegetable oil and letting the glycerol settle (about 15% of the biodiesel mix). The supernatant is biodiesel and contains a mixture of methylated fatty acids and methanol.
VOC –VOCs, or volatile organic compounds, are air pollutants found in engine exhaust. Bioethanol helps reduce VOC emissions.
Yeast – Yeast is any of various single-cell fungi capable of fermenting carbohydrates. Bioethanol is produced by fermenting sugars with yeast.
Algae – Algae are primitive plants, usually aquatic, capable of synthesising their own food by photosynthesis. Algae is currently being investigated as a possible feedstock for producing biodiesel
Biobutanol – Biobutanol is an advantaged biofuel that offers a number of benefits over conventional biofuels. For example, biobutanol has an energy content closer to that of petroleum so consumers face less of a compromise on fuel economy. It can easily be added to conventional petrol due to low vapour pressure and can be blended at higher concentrations than bioethanol for use in standard vehicle engines. DuPont and BP are working together on a major project to produce biobutanol
Biodiesel – Biodiesel is a biofuel produced from various feedstocks including vegetable oils (such as oilseed, rapeseed and soya bean), animal fats or algae. Biodiesel can be blended with diesel for use in diesel engine vehicles.
Biofuel – The term biofuel applies to any solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel produced from organic (once-living) matter. The word biofuel covers a wide range of products, some of which are commercially available today, and some of which are still in research and development.
Biomass – Biomass is biological material, including corn, switchgrass, and oilseed crops, that can be converted into fuel
Bioreactor – A bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process occurs. This usually involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms
BTL – BTL, or biomass-to-liquid,is a multi-step process which converts biomass into liquid biofuels. BTL is also referred to as second generation biodiesel production. There are many different methods of BTL, but many processes include Fischer-Tropsch, hydrogenation or pyrolysis.
By-product – A by-product is a substance, other than the principal product, generated as a consequence of creating a biofuel. For example, a by-product of biodiesel production is glycerine and a by-product of bioethanol production is DDGS
Catalyst – A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without being consumed or produced by the reaction. Enzymes are catalysts for many biochemical reactions.
Cetane number – The cetane number is a measure of biodiesel’s combustion quality
Conventional biofuels - Conventional biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel are typically made from corn, sugarcane and beet, wheat or oilseed crops such as soy and rape.
DDGS – DDGS, or dried distillers grain with solubles is a by-product of dry mill ethanol production that is fed to livestock.
Emissions: Emissions are classed as any waste substances released into the air or water.
Enzyme: An enzyme is a protein or protein-based molecule that speeds up chemical reactions occurring in living things. Enzymes act as catalysts for a single reaction, converting a specific set of reactants into specific products.
FAME – FAME, or fatty acid methyl ester can be created by a catalysed reaction between fatty acids and methanol. The molecules in biodiesel are primarily FAMEs, usually obtained from vegetable oils by transesterification.
Fatty acid: A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (an acid with a -COOH group) with long hydrocarbon side chains. Feedstocks are first converted to fatty acids and then to biodiesel
Feedstock – A feedstock is any biomass resource destined for conversion to energy or biofuel. For example, corn is a feedstock for ethanol production, soybean oil may be a feedstock for biodiesel and cellulosic biomass has the potential to be a significant feedstock source for biofuels.
Fischer-Tropsch – Fischer-Tropsch is one method of producing biodiesel, from natural gas or syngas from gasified coal or biomass
Fuel - A fuel is described as any material with one type of energy that can be converted to another usable energy.
Glycerine- Glycerine is a liquid by-product of biodiesel production. Glycerine is used in the manufacture of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, inks, and lubricants.
GTL – GTL, or gas to liquid, is a refinery process which converts natural gas into longer-chain hydrocarbons. Gas can be converted to liquid fuels via a direct conversion or using a process such as Fischer-Tropsch.
Iodine value – An iodine value is a measure of the number of unsaturated carbon-carbon double bonds in a vegetable oil molecule. In liquid biofuel applications this gives a lower cold filter plugging point (CFPP) or cloud point. While this makes it good for use in cooler temperatures, double bonds can allow polymerisation, leading to the formation of lacquers and possibly blockage and damage to engine or fuel train components
Jatropha - Jatropha is a non-edible evergreen shrub found in Asia, Africa and the West Indies. Its seeds contain a high proportion of oil which can be used for making biodiesel.
Methanol – Methanol is an alcohol containing one carbon atom per molecule, generally made from natural gas, with about half the energy density of petroleum. Methanol is used as a component in the transesterification of triglycerides to give a form of biodiesel.
MTBE – MTBE, or methyl tertiary-butyl ether, is created from methanol and can increase octane and decrease the volatility of petroleum. It is often used as a petroleum additive because it raises the oxygen content of the fuel.
Nitrogen Oxides – Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) are a product of photochemical reactions of nitric oxide in ambient air, and are one type of emission produces from fuels.
Octane number - The octane rating of a fuel is indicated on the pump. The higher the number, the slower the fuel burns. Bioethanol typically adds two to three octane numbers when blended with ordinary petroleum – making it a cost-effective octane-enhancer.
Palm oil – Palm oil is a form of vegetable oil obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree. It is a widely used feedstock The palm oil and palm kernel oil are composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol just like any ordinary fat. Palm oil is a widely used feedstock for traditional biodiesel production.
Petroleum - Petroleum refers to any petroleum-based substance comprising of a complex blend of hydrocarbons derived from crude oil through the process of separation, conversion, upgrading, and finishing, including motor fuel, jet oil, lubricants, petroleum solvents, and used oil.
Pyrolysis – Pyrolysis is one method of converting biomass into biodiesel, using heat.
Pyrolysis oil – Pyrolysis oil is a bio-oil produced by fast pyrolysis of biomass. It is a dark brown, mobile liquid containing much of the energy content of the original biomass, with a heating value about half that of conventional fuel oil. Conversion of raw biomass to pyrolysis oil represents a considerable increase in energy density and it can thus represent a more efficient form in which to transport it.
Rapeseed - Rapeseed (Brassica napus), also known as rape, oilseed rape or (one particular artificial variety) canola, is a bright yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family). Rapeseed is a tradition feedstock used for biodiesel production.
RTFO – RTFO, or the Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation, is a UK policy that places an obligation on fuel suppliers to ensure that a certain percentage of their aggregate sales is made up of biofuels. The effect of this will be to require 5% of all UK fuel sold on UK forecourts to come from a renewable source by 2010.
Second generation biofuels – Although definitions vary, second generation biofuels are usually considered to be biofuels produced from biomass or non-edible feedstocks.
Syngas – Syngas is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) which is the product of high temperature gasification of organic material such as biomass. Following clean-up to remove any impurities such as tars, synthesis gas (syngas) can be used to synthesise organic molecules such as synthetic natural gas (SNG - methane (CH4)) or liquid biofuels such as synthetic diesel (via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis).
Switchgrass – Switchgrass is native to the US and known for its hardiness and rapid growth. It is often cited as a potentially abundant second generation feedstock for ethanol
Tallow – Tallow is another name for animal fat, which can be used as a feedstock for biodiesel production.
Transesterification – The name biodiesel has been given to transesterified vegetable oil to describe its use as a diesel fuel. The transesterification process involves mixing at room temperature methanol (50% excess) with NaOH (100% excess), then mixing vigorously with vegetable oil and letting the glycerol settle (about 15% of the biodiesel mix). The supernatant is biodiesel and contains a mixture of methylated fatty acids and methanol.
VOC –VOCs, or volatile organic compounds, are air pollutants found in engine exhaust. Bioethanol helps reduce VOC emissions.
Yeast – Yeast is any of various single-cell fungi capable of fermenting carbohydrates. Bioethanol is produced by fermenting sugars with yeast.
BioDiesel Events details
FEBRUARY
18-19
Bioenergy Europe
London, UK
21-22
Biofuels India 2008
New Delhi, India
25-27
13th Annual National Ethanol Conference
Florida, US
26-27
StocExpo Russia and the Baltic
Helsinki, Finland
28-29
China Biodiesel 2008: Feedstock & Markets
Beijing, China
MARCH
4-6
Washington International Renewable Energy Conference
Washington, US
10-13
3rd Annual African Biofuels
South Africa
11-12
The European Fuels Conference
Paris, France
12-14
World Biofuels Markets Congress and Exhibition
Brussels, Belgium
13-14
Biofuel - A New Market Niche
Riga, Latvia
27-28
Biofuels Asia 2008
Bangkok, Thailand
31-4
ERTC Biofuels and Conference
Brussels, Belgium
APRIL
1-3
StocExpo Europe
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
2-4
Biofuels Ukraine
Kyiv, Ukraine
7-8
Platts Ethanol in Europe
Berlin, Germany
8-10
Biofuel Summit & Expo
St Petersburg, Russia
22-24
Biofuel Summit & Expo Espana
Madrid, Spain
24-26
RENEXPO Central and South-East Europe 2008
Budapest, Hungary
27-29
2008 Asia International New Energy Technology & Equipment Exhibition
Beijing, China
27-30
5th Annual World Congress on Industrial Biotechnology and Bioprocessing
Chicago, US
28-30
Bioenergy 2008
Bangkok, Thailand
MAY
11-14
Alternative Fuels & Vehicles National Conference & Expo
Las Vegas, US
19-21
Renewable Energy Finance and Investment Summit
Arizona, US
27-29
World Bioenergy 2008: Conference & Exhibition
Jonkoping, Sweden
JUNE
2-6
16th European Biomass Conference & Exhibition
Valencia, Spain
3-5
BioEnergy Conference and Exhibition 2008
British Columbia, Canada
4-5
Biofuels International Expo & Conference
The Ahoy, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
10-11
World Biofuels Forum 2008
Prague, Czech Republic
10-11
Clean Fuels 2008
Warsaw, Poland
16-19
Fuel Ethanol Workshop & Expo
Tennessee, US
JULY
9-11
BioFuels World 2008 Conference & Expo
Yokohama, Japan
AUGUST
21-23
Renewable Energy India 2008 Expo
New Delhi, India
SEPTEMBER
15-17
Alternative Energy Sources & Technologies
Boston, Massachusetts, US
27-30
World Congress on Oils & Fats
Australia
OCTOBER
1-4
4th International expo: biofuel industry & technology
Rome, Italy
15-16
StocExpo Asia
Singapore
21-23
Biofuels Summit & Expo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
NOVEMBER
5-8
Biofuels Summit & Expo
Rimini, Italy
DECEMBER
2-3
StocExpo South America
Sao Paulo, Brazil
18-19
Bioenergy Europe
London, UK
21-22
Biofuels India 2008
New Delhi, India
25-27
13th Annual National Ethanol Conference
Florida, US
26-27
StocExpo Russia and the Baltic
Helsinki, Finland
28-29
China Biodiesel 2008: Feedstock & Markets
Beijing, China
MARCH
4-6
Washington International Renewable Energy Conference
Washington, US
10-13
3rd Annual African Biofuels
South Africa
11-12
The European Fuels Conference
Paris, France
12-14
World Biofuels Markets Congress and Exhibition
Brussels, Belgium
13-14
Biofuel - A New Market Niche
Riga, Latvia
27-28
Biofuels Asia 2008
Bangkok, Thailand
31-4
ERTC Biofuels and Conference
Brussels, Belgium
APRIL
1-3
StocExpo Europe
Rotterdam, the Netherlands
2-4
Biofuels Ukraine
Kyiv, Ukraine
7-8
Platts Ethanol in Europe
Berlin, Germany
8-10
Biofuel Summit & Expo
St Petersburg, Russia
22-24
Biofuel Summit & Expo Espana
Madrid, Spain
24-26
RENEXPO Central and South-East Europe 2008
Budapest, Hungary
27-29
2008 Asia International New Energy Technology & Equipment Exhibition
Beijing, China
27-30
5th Annual World Congress on Industrial Biotechnology and Bioprocessing
Chicago, US
28-30
Bioenergy 2008
Bangkok, Thailand
MAY
11-14
Alternative Fuels & Vehicles National Conference & Expo
Las Vegas, US
19-21
Renewable Energy Finance and Investment Summit
Arizona, US
27-29
World Bioenergy 2008: Conference & Exhibition
Jonkoping, Sweden
JUNE
2-6
16th European Biomass Conference & Exhibition
Valencia, Spain
3-5
BioEnergy Conference and Exhibition 2008
British Columbia, Canada
4-5
Biofuels International Expo & Conference
The Ahoy, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
10-11
World Biofuels Forum 2008
Prague, Czech Republic
10-11
Clean Fuels 2008
Warsaw, Poland
16-19
Fuel Ethanol Workshop & Expo
Tennessee, US
JULY
9-11
BioFuels World 2008 Conference & Expo
Yokohama, Japan
AUGUST
21-23
Renewable Energy India 2008 Expo
New Delhi, India
SEPTEMBER
15-17
Alternative Energy Sources & Technologies
Boston, Massachusetts, US
27-30
World Congress on Oils & Fats
Australia
OCTOBER
1-4
4th International expo: biofuel industry & technology
Rome, Italy
15-16
StocExpo Asia
Singapore
21-23
Biofuels Summit & Expo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
NOVEMBER
5-8
Biofuels Summit & Expo
Rimini, Italy
DECEMBER
2-3
StocExpo South America
Sao Paulo, Brazil
Renewable energy in India: status and future prospects
Introduction
India is a developing and fast-growing large economy and faces a great challenge to meet its energy needs in a responsible and sustainable manner. India's task is to provide energy to over 600,000 human settlements, spread over 300,000 square km of territory, with a population of over one billion which is still growing, but expected to stabilise at around 1.6 billion during the next 40 years. The total primary energy supply in India has grown at a compound rate of around 3.4 per cent since independence to reach 537.7Mtoe (million tonnes of oil equivalent) in the year 2005 (IEA 2007). While commercial primary energy grew at 5.3 per cent over the period, non-commercial energy grew at only 1.6 per cent, which is a reflection of industrialisation. As a result, the share of commercial energy grew from 28 per cent in 1950 to around 70 per cent in 2004 with an associated decline of non-commercial energy.
In 2005, India accounted for 4.7 per cent of the world's primary energy supply. Per capita energy consumption was just 27 per cent of the world average at slightly over 500kg oil equivalent.
Electric power
India accounted for 3.1 per cent of the world's electricity consumption in 2005 with an installed capacity of 135,780 MW as of September 2007. Of this, 87,200 MW is accounted for by thermal power plants, 34,200 MW by large hydro plants, 4,100 MW by nuclear, and the balance from renewable sources. The consumption of electricity in India rose from 4,157 GWh in 1950 to 38,6134 GWh in 2004/05. The per capita consumption was 612 kWh in 2004/05 as against 329 kWh in 1990 (CEA). Despite the significant growth in electricity generation, shortage of power continues to exist primarily due to the growth in power demand outstripping the growth in generation and generating capacity addition. In May 2007, the country experienced an estimated eight per cent energy shortage and 12.3 per cent shortage of peaking power. Even so, the 2001 census recorded 12 .5 per cent of urban households and 56.5 per cent of rural households as still unelectrified.
Modern energy provision
One of India's major challenges is to provide a large proportion of the country's population with access to modern energy sources. Around 86 per cent of rural households and more than 20 per cent of urban households still rely primarily on traditional fuels, such as firewood, wood chips or dung cakes, to meet their cooking needs. The use of traditional fuels can cause health problems arising from indoor air pollution. Only five per cent and 2.7 per cent of rural households use LPG and kerosene respectively as a primary cooking fuel whereas 44 per cent and 22 per cent of urban households uses LPG and kerosene respectively. With low standards of living, ie below the per-person-a-day International Poverty Line of US$2, at Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) rates of about 75 per cent population, the task of providing modern energy services becomes severely compounded. This has resulted in low levels of per capita energy and electricity consumption on account of low levels of purchasing power.
Projections made by the Integrated Energy Policy Committee of the Planning Commission have estimated that in order to meet the projected GDP growth of eight per cent per annum by 2031-2032, the demand for primary energy will increase to 1,836Mtoe representing almost a four fold increase since 2003-04. Commercial energy requirements would also be around 1,651Mtoe, which is an approximate five fold increase since the year 2003-04.
Renewable energy
India intends to provide a reliable energy supply through a diverse and sustainable fuel mix that addresses major national drivers. These include security concerns, commercial exploitation of renewable power potential, eradication of energy poverty, ensuring availability and affordability of energy supply and preparing the nation for imminent energy transition.
The country has an estimated renewable energy potential of around 85,000 MW from commercially exploitable sources: Wind, 45,000 MW; small hydro, 15,000 MW and biomass/bioenergy, 25,000 MW. In addition, India has the potential to generate 35 MW per square km using solar photovoltaic and solar thermal energy.
Grid-interactive renewable power
By March 2007, renewable electricity, excluding hydro above 25 MW installed capacity, has contributed 10,243 MW representing 7.7 per cent of total electricity installed capacity. There has been phenomenal progress in wind power and, with an installed capacity of over 7,100 MW, India occupies the fourth position globally.
Decentralised and stand alone renewable electricity systems
Over 3,000 remote and inaccessible villages and hamlets have been provided with basic electricity services through distributed renewable power systems. In addition, over 75 MW biomass based gasification systems in the capacity range of 10-100 kW are in use for small scale industrial applications and electrification purposes. Finally, over 1.3 million solar home lighting systems, including lanterns and street lights have been set up in different parts of the country.
Heat energy for cooking purposes
Since the 1970s, around 3.9 million family-type biogas plants have been set up to provide clean cooking energy options in rural areas. Biogas based cooking in rural areas has made cooking a pleasure with associated social and environmental benefits including zero indoor pollution.
Process heat for domestic, industrial and commerical purposes
Use of solar thermal systems has started gaining momentum, with a solar collector area of 1.9 million sq metres already installed to meet these needs.
Liquid biofuels for transport applications
The large scale development of biofuels, including straight vegetable oil (SVO), biodiesel and bioethanol is still in its infancy. In 2004 around 0.1Mtoe ethanol was used for blending with petrol. Biodiesel use is still negligible. However, a policy framework for blending five per cent ethanol with petrol and the development of a biodiesel programme, based on non-edible oil, has been developed.
Renewable outlook
The Integrated Energy Policy Report of the Planning Commission of India has observed that the contribution of modern renewables to India's energy mix by 2031-32, excluding large hydro, would be around five-six per cent. However, our estimates indicate that by 2032, renewable power capacity, excluding large hydro could contribute up to 10 per cent of the total electricity generation in the country. About 25,000 remote villages could be provided with basic electricity services through renewable and seven per cent of the rural population would meet its cooking energy needs through biogas and other modern renewable energy systems. With focused biofuel programme, around seven to 10 per cent of oil needs could be met through biofuels. While this figure appears small, the distributed nature of renewables can provide many socioeconomic benefits. Further, its impact in abating greenhouse gas emissions would be significant. Widespread deployment of renewable systems would also create significant employment potential for unskilled and semi-skilled workers.
Regulatory framework
India has been pursuing a three-fold strategy for the promotion of renewables:
Providing budgetary support for research, development and demonstration of technologies.
Facilitating institutional finance from various financial institutions.
Promoting private investment through fiscal incentives, tax holidays, depreciation allowance and remunerative returns for power fed into the grid.
India's renewable energy programme is primarily private sector driven and offers significant investment and business opportunities. A large domestic manufacturing base has been established in the country for renewable energy systems and products. The annual turnover of the renewable energy industry, including the power generating technologies for wind and other sources, has reached a level of over US$10 billion. Companies investing in these technologies are eligible for fiscal incentives, tax holidays, depreciation allowance and remunerative returns for power fed into the grid. Further, the Government is encouraging foreign investors to set up renewable power projects on a ‘build, own and operate' basis with 100 per cent foreign direct investment.
The most important legislative development which has stimulated the recent growth in renewable power is the Electricity Act of 2003. The Act recognises the role of renewable energy technologies for supplying power to the utility grid as well as in stand alone systems. The Act also has several provisions favourable for renewable power, including rural electrification. Its most important feature, however, is its empowerment of the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) to promote renewable energy and to specify a percentage of the total consumption of electricity in the area of a distribution licence that will be purchased from renewable energy sources. This is considered a major boost for renewable energy promotion in India.
Renewable energy and climate change
India's first National Communication (2004) reveals that the energy sector accounts for around 61 per cent of total national emissions. For fossil fuels, coal combustion had a dominant share of emissions, amounting to around 64 per cent of all energy emissions. With regard to India's emissions trajectory, the Integrated Energy Policy Report of the Planning Commission has observed that "Since GHG emissions are directly linked to economic activity, India's economic growth will necessarily involve increases in GHG emissions from the current extremely low levels. Any constraints on the emissions of GHG by India, whether direct, by way of emissions targets, or indirect, will reduce growth rates, and impair pollution abatement efforts."
Due to its vast market potential for renewable energy projects, and a relatively well developed industrial, financing and business infrastructure, India is perceived as an excellent country for developing Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. As such, India has emerged as one of the most favoured destinations for CDM projects globally, with renewable energy projects having the major share. National renewable energy plans offer ample opportunity for CDM projects and technological innovations, such as biogas for transport application, offer new areas for project development.
Technology concerns
The feasibility of a larger application of renewable energy, to that of the present assessments, would depend on how rapidly costs decline and efficiencies increase. As a result, research and technology development have been accorded high priority in the national renewable energy programme and mission mode research has been planned for developing solar, bioenergy and hydrogen technologies. India encourages international cooperation in renewable energy R&D, through well defined projects with proper division of labour and responsibilities for specific tasks with equitable financial burden and credit sharing arrangements. Bilateral, as well as multilateral, scientific and technological cooperation agreements could provide a framework for such R&D activities.
Technology plays a central role in addressing climate change issues. In this context there is a need to treat renewable energy technologies as a ‘global common' in the medium term. To begin with these technologies could be placed in the public domain and joint research and development projects could be taken up between the institutions of developed and developing countries. Technology transfer costs could be fixed at no-profit level and the expenditure to be incurred in these acquisitions could be made from a global funds under climate change mechanisms.
Conclusion
Indian efforts for promoting renewable energy are in harmony with global concerns. India's strategies focus on:
Working towards lowering the relative price of new and renewable power technologies through a continuous and focused research and development effort.
Improving access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy services and resources.
The approach in India matches the global aim of ushering in a carbon free economy; an economy based on a fuel mix mainly provided by the green or renewable energy technologies.
For India, new and renewable energy development and deployment is of great importance from the point of view of long term energy supply security, decentralisation of energy supply particularly for the benefit of the rural population, environmental benefits and sustainability. In this context, the Indian renewable energy programme is a goal-oriented effort to meet the country's energy requirement in an environmentally sound way.
Author
Presently, Secretary to the Government of India since February 2006, Shri Subramanian was a commerce graduate of the University of Madras and a qualified banker who started his career as the Sub-Divisional Magistrate at Kalna and Barrackpore in the State of West Bengal. He moved to the Government of India in 1983 as Deputy Secretary, Department of Expenditure and was a Director in the Department of Economic Affairs during 1985-89. In 1990 he went on a Commonwealth assignment as Adviser on Loan and Grant Management to the Government of Mozambique. On his return to West Bengal, he was Power Secretary and Labour Secretary in the State Government.
Organisation
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India at the Federal level for all matters relating to new and renewable energy. The Ministry has been facilitating the implementation of broad spectrum programmes including harnessing renewable power, renewable energy to rural areas for lighting, cooking and motive power, use of renewable energy in urban, industrial and commercial applications and development of alternate fuels and applications. In addition, it supports research, design and development of new and renewable energy technologies, products and services.
Enquiries
Ministry of New and Renewable EnergyBlock-14, CGO ComplexLodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003India
India is a developing and fast-growing large economy and faces a great challenge to meet its energy needs in a responsible and sustainable manner. India's task is to provide energy to over 600,000 human settlements, spread over 300,000 square km of territory, with a population of over one billion which is still growing, but expected to stabilise at around 1.6 billion during the next 40 years. The total primary energy supply in India has grown at a compound rate of around 3.4 per cent since independence to reach 537.7Mtoe (million tonnes of oil equivalent) in the year 2005 (IEA 2007). While commercial primary energy grew at 5.3 per cent over the period, non-commercial energy grew at only 1.6 per cent, which is a reflection of industrialisation. As a result, the share of commercial energy grew from 28 per cent in 1950 to around 70 per cent in 2004 with an associated decline of non-commercial energy.
In 2005, India accounted for 4.7 per cent of the world's primary energy supply. Per capita energy consumption was just 27 per cent of the world average at slightly over 500kg oil equivalent.
Electric power
India accounted for 3.1 per cent of the world's electricity consumption in 2005 with an installed capacity of 135,780 MW as of September 2007. Of this, 87,200 MW is accounted for by thermal power plants, 34,200 MW by large hydro plants, 4,100 MW by nuclear, and the balance from renewable sources. The consumption of electricity in India rose from 4,157 GWh in 1950 to 38,6134 GWh in 2004/05. The per capita consumption was 612 kWh in 2004/05 as against 329 kWh in 1990 (CEA). Despite the significant growth in electricity generation, shortage of power continues to exist primarily due to the growth in power demand outstripping the growth in generation and generating capacity addition. In May 2007, the country experienced an estimated eight per cent energy shortage and 12.3 per cent shortage of peaking power. Even so, the 2001 census recorded 12 .5 per cent of urban households and 56.5 per cent of rural households as still unelectrified.
Modern energy provision
One of India's major challenges is to provide a large proportion of the country's population with access to modern energy sources. Around 86 per cent of rural households and more than 20 per cent of urban households still rely primarily on traditional fuels, such as firewood, wood chips or dung cakes, to meet their cooking needs. The use of traditional fuels can cause health problems arising from indoor air pollution. Only five per cent and 2.7 per cent of rural households use LPG and kerosene respectively as a primary cooking fuel whereas 44 per cent and 22 per cent of urban households uses LPG and kerosene respectively. With low standards of living, ie below the per-person-a-day International Poverty Line of US$2, at Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) rates of about 75 per cent population, the task of providing modern energy services becomes severely compounded. This has resulted in low levels of per capita energy and electricity consumption on account of low levels of purchasing power.
Projections made by the Integrated Energy Policy Committee of the Planning Commission have estimated that in order to meet the projected GDP growth of eight per cent per annum by 2031-2032, the demand for primary energy will increase to 1,836Mtoe representing almost a four fold increase since 2003-04. Commercial energy requirements would also be around 1,651Mtoe, which is an approximate five fold increase since the year 2003-04.
Renewable energy
India intends to provide a reliable energy supply through a diverse and sustainable fuel mix that addresses major national drivers. These include security concerns, commercial exploitation of renewable power potential, eradication of energy poverty, ensuring availability and affordability of energy supply and preparing the nation for imminent energy transition.
The country has an estimated renewable energy potential of around 85,000 MW from commercially exploitable sources: Wind, 45,000 MW; small hydro, 15,000 MW and biomass/bioenergy, 25,000 MW. In addition, India has the potential to generate 35 MW per square km using solar photovoltaic and solar thermal energy.
Grid-interactive renewable power
By March 2007, renewable electricity, excluding hydro above 25 MW installed capacity, has contributed 10,243 MW representing 7.7 per cent of total electricity installed capacity. There has been phenomenal progress in wind power and, with an installed capacity of over 7,100 MW, India occupies the fourth position globally.
Decentralised and stand alone renewable electricity systems
Over 3,000 remote and inaccessible villages and hamlets have been provided with basic electricity services through distributed renewable power systems. In addition, over 75 MW biomass based gasification systems in the capacity range of 10-100 kW are in use for small scale industrial applications and electrification purposes. Finally, over 1.3 million solar home lighting systems, including lanterns and street lights have been set up in different parts of the country.
Heat energy for cooking purposes
Since the 1970s, around 3.9 million family-type biogas plants have been set up to provide clean cooking energy options in rural areas. Biogas based cooking in rural areas has made cooking a pleasure with associated social and environmental benefits including zero indoor pollution.
Process heat for domestic, industrial and commerical purposes
Use of solar thermal systems has started gaining momentum, with a solar collector area of 1.9 million sq metres already installed to meet these needs.
Liquid biofuels for transport applications
The large scale development of biofuels, including straight vegetable oil (SVO), biodiesel and bioethanol is still in its infancy. In 2004 around 0.1Mtoe ethanol was used for blending with petrol. Biodiesel use is still negligible. However, a policy framework for blending five per cent ethanol with petrol and the development of a biodiesel programme, based on non-edible oil, has been developed.
Renewable outlook
The Integrated Energy Policy Report of the Planning Commission of India has observed that the contribution of modern renewables to India's energy mix by 2031-32, excluding large hydro, would be around five-six per cent. However, our estimates indicate that by 2032, renewable power capacity, excluding large hydro could contribute up to 10 per cent of the total electricity generation in the country. About 25,000 remote villages could be provided with basic electricity services through renewable and seven per cent of the rural population would meet its cooking energy needs through biogas and other modern renewable energy systems. With focused biofuel programme, around seven to 10 per cent of oil needs could be met through biofuels. While this figure appears small, the distributed nature of renewables can provide many socioeconomic benefits. Further, its impact in abating greenhouse gas emissions would be significant. Widespread deployment of renewable systems would also create significant employment potential for unskilled and semi-skilled workers.
Regulatory framework
India has been pursuing a three-fold strategy for the promotion of renewables:
Providing budgetary support for research, development and demonstration of technologies.
Facilitating institutional finance from various financial institutions.
Promoting private investment through fiscal incentives, tax holidays, depreciation allowance and remunerative returns for power fed into the grid.
India's renewable energy programme is primarily private sector driven and offers significant investment and business opportunities. A large domestic manufacturing base has been established in the country for renewable energy systems and products. The annual turnover of the renewable energy industry, including the power generating technologies for wind and other sources, has reached a level of over US$10 billion. Companies investing in these technologies are eligible for fiscal incentives, tax holidays, depreciation allowance and remunerative returns for power fed into the grid. Further, the Government is encouraging foreign investors to set up renewable power projects on a ‘build, own and operate' basis with 100 per cent foreign direct investment.
The most important legislative development which has stimulated the recent growth in renewable power is the Electricity Act of 2003. The Act recognises the role of renewable energy technologies for supplying power to the utility grid as well as in stand alone systems. The Act also has several provisions favourable for renewable power, including rural electrification. Its most important feature, however, is its empowerment of the State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) to promote renewable energy and to specify a percentage of the total consumption of electricity in the area of a distribution licence that will be purchased from renewable energy sources. This is considered a major boost for renewable energy promotion in India.
Renewable energy and climate change
India's first National Communication (2004) reveals that the energy sector accounts for around 61 per cent of total national emissions. For fossil fuels, coal combustion had a dominant share of emissions, amounting to around 64 per cent of all energy emissions. With regard to India's emissions trajectory, the Integrated Energy Policy Report of the Planning Commission has observed that "Since GHG emissions are directly linked to economic activity, India's economic growth will necessarily involve increases in GHG emissions from the current extremely low levels. Any constraints on the emissions of GHG by India, whether direct, by way of emissions targets, or indirect, will reduce growth rates, and impair pollution abatement efforts."
Due to its vast market potential for renewable energy projects, and a relatively well developed industrial, financing and business infrastructure, India is perceived as an excellent country for developing Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. As such, India has emerged as one of the most favoured destinations for CDM projects globally, with renewable energy projects having the major share. National renewable energy plans offer ample opportunity for CDM projects and technological innovations, such as biogas for transport application, offer new areas for project development.
Technology concerns
The feasibility of a larger application of renewable energy, to that of the present assessments, would depend on how rapidly costs decline and efficiencies increase. As a result, research and technology development have been accorded high priority in the national renewable energy programme and mission mode research has been planned for developing solar, bioenergy and hydrogen technologies. India encourages international cooperation in renewable energy R&D, through well defined projects with proper division of labour and responsibilities for specific tasks with equitable financial burden and credit sharing arrangements. Bilateral, as well as multilateral, scientific and technological cooperation agreements could provide a framework for such R&D activities.
Technology plays a central role in addressing climate change issues. In this context there is a need to treat renewable energy technologies as a ‘global common' in the medium term. To begin with these technologies could be placed in the public domain and joint research and development projects could be taken up between the institutions of developed and developing countries. Technology transfer costs could be fixed at no-profit level and the expenditure to be incurred in these acquisitions could be made from a global funds under climate change mechanisms.
Conclusion
Indian efforts for promoting renewable energy are in harmony with global concerns. India's strategies focus on:
Working towards lowering the relative price of new and renewable power technologies through a continuous and focused research and development effort.
Improving access to reliable, affordable, economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy services and resources.
The approach in India matches the global aim of ushering in a carbon free economy; an economy based on a fuel mix mainly provided by the green or renewable energy technologies.
For India, new and renewable energy development and deployment is of great importance from the point of view of long term energy supply security, decentralisation of energy supply particularly for the benefit of the rural population, environmental benefits and sustainability. In this context, the Indian renewable energy programme is a goal-oriented effort to meet the country's energy requirement in an environmentally sound way.
Author
Presently, Secretary to the Government of India since February 2006, Shri Subramanian was a commerce graduate of the University of Madras and a qualified banker who started his career as the Sub-Divisional Magistrate at Kalna and Barrackpore in the State of West Bengal. He moved to the Government of India in 1983 as Deputy Secretary, Department of Expenditure and was a Director in the Department of Economic Affairs during 1985-89. In 1990 he went on a Commonwealth assignment as Adviser on Loan and Grant Management to the Government of Mozambique. On his return to West Bengal, he was Power Secretary and Labour Secretary in the State Government.
Organisation
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India at the Federal level for all matters relating to new and renewable energy. The Ministry has been facilitating the implementation of broad spectrum programmes including harnessing renewable power, renewable energy to rural areas for lighting, cooking and motive power, use of renewable energy in urban, industrial and commercial applications and development of alternate fuels and applications. In addition, it supports research, design and development of new and renewable energy technologies, products and services.
Enquiries
Ministry of New and Renewable EnergyBlock-14, CGO ComplexLodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003India
HOPE IN JATROPHA
Editor's Note: Critics of biofuel point out the energy and water necessary to produce the feedstock often can exceed the energy value of the fuel produced. But these studies usually ignore the value of the plant mass as animal feed or fertilizer, once the fuel has been extracted. Another valid concern is the tradeoff between using land to grow food and using land to grow fuel. But what if a plant used to extract biofuel grew on marginal land, that was unable to support crops? What if this plant required minimal water and fertilizer inputs?
Jatropha, also known as the Physic Nut, is a plant which may hold such promise. Able to tolerate arid climates, rapidly growing, useful for a variety of products, Jatropha can yield up to two tons of biodiesel fuel per year per hectare. Put another way, Jatropha can yield about 1,000 barrels of oil per year per square mile. In such quantities, Jatropha, like biofuels in general, cannot become a replacement for oil. But Jatropha requires minimal inputs, stablizes or even reverses desertification, and has use for a variety of products after the biofuel is extracted. Moreover, diesel fuel with biodiesel additives causes far less pollution.
Biofuel is not the ultimate solution to the energy challenges facing India or the world. But it is part of the solution, especially when it not only stretches finite supplies of conventional fuel, but restores the land it grows on, does not displace more viable agricultural land, and requires minimal water inputs.
As energy demand increases,
the global supply of fossil fuels decreases, causing inflation, instability and war; the emissions from fossil fuels cause immediate harm to human health and contribute to the greenhouse effect, and, deforestation and the destruction of agricultural lands threaten to turn this Earth into a desert, bit by bit. There is no doubt that the end of the fossil fuel age is not far off.
Then what? How can we combat desertification, reduce the need for oil, and help heal the present wounds in the environment, all in one stroke?
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul KalamPresident of India
A visionary scientist among politicians, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, the president of India, sees an answer in biofuel. In a recent Presidential address he recognized biofuel, and specifically the plant jatropha, as worthy of mention. Discussing the national problems of water scarcity and drought, he stated that "India needs to grow jatropha to tackle dry land and generate bio-diesel."
India is particularly well-suited for the honor of heralding in a green alternative fuel because of its:
(1) Estimated 50 to 130 million hectares of wastelands-- saline lands (from mining), degraded forests, and other land unavailable for agricultural use due to overfarming;
(2) Resulting shifting sand dunes and continuing process of desertification;
(3) Fastest growing population rate in the world -- increasing the need for food, energy, and employment;
(4) Rural/agricultural population of over 70%: biofuel screw presses are simple to make, and can be produced and maintained by a village blacksmith
(5) Huge national crude oil bill-- second only to defense spending;
(6) Constant battle with drought and shortages of water and electricity;
(7) Warm climate, agreeable both to growing biofuels and running engines that use them.
Indian Council of ForestryResearch & Education
R. P. S. Katwal, Director General of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, said that the Union government had drawn up a blueprint to plant Jatropha trees on 50,000 hectares at a cost of Rs 1,430,000. "Biofuels are gaining importance in the light of increasing energy demand, especially fossil fuels which are non-renewable. Biofuels are renewable, biodegradable, non-hazardous and safer for air, water and soil and its use reduces the emission of greenhouse gases."
Other projects are funded from abroad, like the proposed $2.5 million pilot project in Hyderabad, Rajasthan, which will produce 10 tons of biodiesel per day. Raw oils from Pongamia, Jatropha, and other trees will be sourced from local farmers who are expected to be the major beneficiaries. The German Development Corporation (GTZ) is currently working with the promoters, Southern Biofuels Pvt. Ltd., to prepare a detailed project proposal for possible funding by German companies and the German government.
German Development Corporation
Daimler Chrysler and Hohenheim University (also German) are conducting a research project in two different climatic zones of India. Each plantation will consist of 20 hectares of jatropha trees planted on wastelands-- one caused by industrialization and the other by natural soil erosion. Other aspects include test vehicles and research laboratories. After the five-year research period, it is hoped that the plantations will become self-sustaining, profitable enterprises.
The current rate of Indian development of biofuels, particularly biodiesel, is just a drop in the bucket when compared to its potential. If 10 million hectares (100,000 square kilometers or 38,000 square miles) of India's vast and sometimes destructive wastelands were used for biodiesel production, with a modest estimate of 1.5 tons of seeds per hectare, 4 million tons of biodiesel would be produced-- one tenth of the country's annual oil requirement. If one person was employed per hectare, that would mean 10 million new jobs. And, for use or sale, 11 million tons of organic seedcake fertilizer or livestock feed and 0.4 million tons of technical grade glycerol would be produced.
Ethanol is the most widely used biofuel in the world; technological advances have lowered the cost of its production and processing. Brazil boasts one of the largest green fuel programs in existence: petrol-only engines have been banned and replaced by engines that use pure ethanol or a 78-22 petrol-ethanol blend. The shift has greatly benefit Brazil environmentally and economically, creating employment and reducing the need for foreign oil. Its hot, wet climate is well-suited to the production of sugarcane (from which ethanol is made), and farmers especially have profited.
India is also one of the biggest worldwide producers of sugarcane, but its constant struggle with water shortages in many areas makes growing this crop problematic. However, due to overproduction, sugar prices crashed, and there are actually stockpiles of sugar and spoilt food grain which have no use. These can be used to make ethanol.
Since January 2003, a minimum 5% ethanol blend in petrol has been mandatory in India in nine states and four Union territories. By 2005, the ethanol content should reach 10%. Undoubtedly, ethanol is an important biofuel for petrol engines, but its potential is limited in India due to the high amounts of water required for its production.
Jatropha trees grow on land too poor and arid to support food crops
Jatropha curcas, also known as physic nut, is unique among biofuels. Although oil can be extracted from over 80 known plant species, jatropha is currently the first choice for biodiesel. Per hectare, yields vary from 0.5 to 12 tons/year depending on soil and rainfall conditions (Makkar and Becker, 1999). An average of about 5 tons of seeds per hectare can be produced under optimum conditions. The oil content of the seed is 55-60%, which can be converted into biodiesel by transesterification. An annual yield of 0.75 to 2 tons of biodiesel could be expected per hectare from the fifth year onwards (Fiodl and Eder, 1997).
What makes Jatropha especially attractive to India is that it is a drought-resistant and can grow in saline, marginal and even otherwise infertile soil, requiring little water and maintenance. It is hearty and easy to propagate-- a cutting taken from a plant and simply pushed into the ground will take root. It grows 5 to 10 feet high, and is capable of stabilizing sand dunes, acting as a windbreak and combating desertification. It has been most successful in the drier regions of the tropics with annual rainfall of 300-1000 mm. It grows naturally at lower altitudes (0-500 m) in areas with average annual temperatures well above 200C, but can grow at higher altitudes and tolerate slight frost.
Jatropha naturally repels both animals and insects-- it can be planted along the circumference of farms to protect other crops. Jatropha seedcakes, produced as a by-product of pressing the oil, make an excellent organic fertilizer or protein-rich livestock feed, and another by-product is glycerine. The plant lives, producing seeds, for over 50 years.
Jatropha cuttings quickly take root
Other parts of the plant are also useful: dark blue dye and wax can be produced from the bark, the stem can be used as a poor quality wood, and the roots help in making yellow dye. The flowers of Jatropha curcas and the Jatropha stem have well-known medicinal properties, and the leaves can be used for dressing wounds. All these things can be used, or sold.
Alternate uses of the oil include varnishes, illuminants, soap, organic insecticide, and medicine for skin diseases, cancer, piles, snakebite, paralysis, dropsy and more.
The Indian Supreme Court has recently banned the use of undiluted petrodiesel for commercial vehicles in Delhi due to its adverse effects on health, and other cities are reported to have followed suit.
As compared to petrodiesel, biodiesel almost completely eliminates lifecycle carbon dioxide emissions. It reduces emission of particulate matter by 40-65%, unburned hydrocarbons by 68%, carbon monoxide by 44-50%, sulphates by 100%, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by 80%, and the carcinogenic nitrated PAHs by 90% on an average. The biodiesel molecules are simple hydrocarbon chains free of the aromatic substances and sulfur associated with fossil fuels.
Although biodiesel does produce more NOx emissions than petrodiesel, these emissions can be reduced through the use of catalytic converters. In petrodiesel vehicles, catalytic converters have generally not been included because the sulfur in the fuel destroys them, but biodiesel does not contain sulfur.
According to most sources, biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine or burner without adaptation. It has a higher cetane number of biodiesel compared to petrodiesel, indicating potential for higher engine performance and causing less knocking. Tests have shown that biodiesel has similar or better fuel consumption, horsepower, and torque and haulage rates than conventional diesel; the use of biodiesel complements the working of the catalysator and can help a current EURO-1 motor attain the EURO-111 standards.
Jatropha planted around farms can repel animals, incects & wind
It is true that, because of the solvent power of biodiesel, especially older engines or machines can get clogged, but this is because the biodiesel is actually cleaning it, dissolving the residues left by petrodiesel. Rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles made prior to 1992 may also be degraded, and need to be replaced. Engine efficiency is also increased by its superior lubricating properties, and the more complete combustion of hydrocarbons due to its higher oxygen content (up to 10%). Finally, biofuel is safer to store because of its higher flash point.
One noteworthy drawback of especially undiluted biodiesel (BD100) is its cold-clogging point of 0 degrees Celsius. This is one of the reasons it is usually mixed with conventional diesel, especially in cold countries. This is not a problem, however, in most of India, except in winter in the higher altitudes of the Himalayas.
The argument that biofuels are not energy efficient, due to the oil used to irrigate, fertilize and plow the land is irrelevant in the case of jatropha-- both irrigation and fertilization are generally unnecessary, or its own seedcakes can be used as fertilizer. The energy efficiency of the current agricultural and industrial production process is reported (in Nicaragua) to be between 1:3.75 and 1:5.
Another common objection to biomass energy production is that it could divert agricultural production away from food crops in a hungry world. Using wastelands, however, instead of farmlands, solves the "food or fuel" dilemma-- these lands are unsuitable for growing other crops. Also, if a biofuel like jatropha is grown, drought and water shortages which would ruin food crops can be survived; if grown in addition to food crops, as mentioned above, it can literally protect them from animals, insects and desertification, and its seedcakes can be used as fertilizer.
Once fuel is extracted from Jatropha, the remaining plant mass is useful as fertilizer and animal feed
The most difficult problem is, as always, cost. In remote areas, where fossil fuels are not readily available, biodiesel is already a feasible alternative, especially considering wasteland reclamation, rural employment and income generation from jatropha biodiesel and its by-products. This is important to consider in India, where electricity is always in short supply-- biodiesel can power generators, lights and farm equipment as well as cars. On the current global market, however, biodiesel generally cannot directly compete with petrodiesel, at least not yet.
The main reason for this is that biodiesel is not being produced on a large scale. The industry is a fragmented network of small companies whose costs and prices are high. Two British biodiesel companies, however, found a solution by listing their company names on the stock market in order to fund large, efficient production facilities, and passing the savings on to consumers. In other parts of the world as well, as production increases, the cost differential of biofuels is decreasing steadily.
Ironically, the first diesel engine ever made, in 1893, was powered by peanut oil-- a biofuel. By the 1920's the petroleum industry had all but eliminated the biofuel infrastructure and usurped the market with petrodiesel because it was cheaper to produce. Even then, the engine's inventor, Rudolf Diesel, maintained that "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today, but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as petroleum and the coal-tar products of the present time."
Now, almost a century later, the world has no choice but to listen or perish in pollution and war. As time goes by and global reserves of fossil fuels shrink, the biofuel industries have to grow up fast, and India is in a good position to step up to the opportunity. The government should give tax concessions or other financial incentives to biofuels companies and consumers to speed up the progress, and urge other nations to do the same. With biofuels, we can help heal and preserve the air, the land, our own physical health and peace.
Brook and Gaurav Bhagat are writers and independent filmmakers based in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India.
Jatropha, also known as the Physic Nut, is a plant which may hold such promise. Able to tolerate arid climates, rapidly growing, useful for a variety of products, Jatropha can yield up to two tons of biodiesel fuel per year per hectare. Put another way, Jatropha can yield about 1,000 barrels of oil per year per square mile. In such quantities, Jatropha, like biofuels in general, cannot become a replacement for oil. But Jatropha requires minimal inputs, stablizes or even reverses desertification, and has use for a variety of products after the biofuel is extracted. Moreover, diesel fuel with biodiesel additives causes far less pollution.
Biofuel is not the ultimate solution to the energy challenges facing India or the world. But it is part of the solution, especially when it not only stretches finite supplies of conventional fuel, but restores the land it grows on, does not displace more viable agricultural land, and requires minimal water inputs.
As energy demand increases,
the global supply of fossil fuels decreases, causing inflation, instability and war; the emissions from fossil fuels cause immediate harm to human health and contribute to the greenhouse effect, and, deforestation and the destruction of agricultural lands threaten to turn this Earth into a desert, bit by bit. There is no doubt that the end of the fossil fuel age is not far off.
Then what? How can we combat desertification, reduce the need for oil, and help heal the present wounds in the environment, all in one stroke?
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul KalamPresident of India
A visionary scientist among politicians, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, the president of India, sees an answer in biofuel. In a recent Presidential address he recognized biofuel, and specifically the plant jatropha, as worthy of mention. Discussing the national problems of water scarcity and drought, he stated that "India needs to grow jatropha to tackle dry land and generate bio-diesel."
India is particularly well-suited for the honor of heralding in a green alternative fuel because of its:
(1) Estimated 50 to 130 million hectares of wastelands-- saline lands (from mining), degraded forests, and other land unavailable for agricultural use due to overfarming;
(2) Resulting shifting sand dunes and continuing process of desertification;
(3) Fastest growing population rate in the world -- increasing the need for food, energy, and employment;
(4) Rural/agricultural population of over 70%: biofuel screw presses are simple to make, and can be produced and maintained by a village blacksmith
(5) Huge national crude oil bill-- second only to defense spending;
(6) Constant battle with drought and shortages of water and electricity;
(7) Warm climate, agreeable both to growing biofuels and running engines that use them.
Indian Council of ForestryResearch & Education
R. P. S. Katwal, Director General of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, said that the Union government had drawn up a blueprint to plant Jatropha trees on 50,000 hectares at a cost of Rs 1,430,000. "Biofuels are gaining importance in the light of increasing energy demand, especially fossil fuels which are non-renewable. Biofuels are renewable, biodegradable, non-hazardous and safer for air, water and soil and its use reduces the emission of greenhouse gases."
Other projects are funded from abroad, like the proposed $2.5 million pilot project in Hyderabad, Rajasthan, which will produce 10 tons of biodiesel per day. Raw oils from Pongamia, Jatropha, and other trees will be sourced from local farmers who are expected to be the major beneficiaries. The German Development Corporation (GTZ) is currently working with the promoters, Southern Biofuels Pvt. Ltd., to prepare a detailed project proposal for possible funding by German companies and the German government.
German Development Corporation
Daimler Chrysler and Hohenheim University (also German) are conducting a research project in two different climatic zones of India. Each plantation will consist of 20 hectares of jatropha trees planted on wastelands-- one caused by industrialization and the other by natural soil erosion. Other aspects include test vehicles and research laboratories. After the five-year research period, it is hoped that the plantations will become self-sustaining, profitable enterprises.
The current rate of Indian development of biofuels, particularly biodiesel, is just a drop in the bucket when compared to its potential. If 10 million hectares (100,000 square kilometers or 38,000 square miles) of India's vast and sometimes destructive wastelands were used for biodiesel production, with a modest estimate of 1.5 tons of seeds per hectare, 4 million tons of biodiesel would be produced-- one tenth of the country's annual oil requirement. If one person was employed per hectare, that would mean 10 million new jobs. And, for use or sale, 11 million tons of organic seedcake fertilizer or livestock feed and 0.4 million tons of technical grade glycerol would be produced.
Ethanol is the most widely used biofuel in the world; technological advances have lowered the cost of its production and processing. Brazil boasts one of the largest green fuel programs in existence: petrol-only engines have been banned and replaced by engines that use pure ethanol or a 78-22 petrol-ethanol blend. The shift has greatly benefit Brazil environmentally and economically, creating employment and reducing the need for foreign oil. Its hot, wet climate is well-suited to the production of sugarcane (from which ethanol is made), and farmers especially have profited.
India is also one of the biggest worldwide producers of sugarcane, but its constant struggle with water shortages in many areas makes growing this crop problematic. However, due to overproduction, sugar prices crashed, and there are actually stockpiles of sugar and spoilt food grain which have no use. These can be used to make ethanol.
Since January 2003, a minimum 5% ethanol blend in petrol has been mandatory in India in nine states and four Union territories. By 2005, the ethanol content should reach 10%. Undoubtedly, ethanol is an important biofuel for petrol engines, but its potential is limited in India due to the high amounts of water required for its production.
Jatropha trees grow on land too poor and arid to support food crops
Jatropha curcas, also known as physic nut, is unique among biofuels. Although oil can be extracted from over 80 known plant species, jatropha is currently the first choice for biodiesel. Per hectare, yields vary from 0.5 to 12 tons/year depending on soil and rainfall conditions (Makkar and Becker, 1999). An average of about 5 tons of seeds per hectare can be produced under optimum conditions. The oil content of the seed is 55-60%, which can be converted into biodiesel by transesterification. An annual yield of 0.75 to 2 tons of biodiesel could be expected per hectare from the fifth year onwards (Fiodl and Eder, 1997).
What makes Jatropha especially attractive to India is that it is a drought-resistant and can grow in saline, marginal and even otherwise infertile soil, requiring little water and maintenance. It is hearty and easy to propagate-- a cutting taken from a plant and simply pushed into the ground will take root. It grows 5 to 10 feet high, and is capable of stabilizing sand dunes, acting as a windbreak and combating desertification. It has been most successful in the drier regions of the tropics with annual rainfall of 300-1000 mm. It grows naturally at lower altitudes (0-500 m) in areas with average annual temperatures well above 200C, but can grow at higher altitudes and tolerate slight frost.
Jatropha naturally repels both animals and insects-- it can be planted along the circumference of farms to protect other crops. Jatropha seedcakes, produced as a by-product of pressing the oil, make an excellent organic fertilizer or protein-rich livestock feed, and another by-product is glycerine. The plant lives, producing seeds, for over 50 years.
Jatropha cuttings quickly take root
Other parts of the plant are also useful: dark blue dye and wax can be produced from the bark, the stem can be used as a poor quality wood, and the roots help in making yellow dye. The flowers of Jatropha curcas and the Jatropha stem have well-known medicinal properties, and the leaves can be used for dressing wounds. All these things can be used, or sold.
Alternate uses of the oil include varnishes, illuminants, soap, organic insecticide, and medicine for skin diseases, cancer, piles, snakebite, paralysis, dropsy and more.
The Indian Supreme Court has recently banned the use of undiluted petrodiesel for commercial vehicles in Delhi due to its adverse effects on health, and other cities are reported to have followed suit.
As compared to petrodiesel, biodiesel almost completely eliminates lifecycle carbon dioxide emissions. It reduces emission of particulate matter by 40-65%, unburned hydrocarbons by 68%, carbon monoxide by 44-50%, sulphates by 100%, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by 80%, and the carcinogenic nitrated PAHs by 90% on an average. The biodiesel molecules are simple hydrocarbon chains free of the aromatic substances and sulfur associated with fossil fuels.
Although biodiesel does produce more NOx emissions than petrodiesel, these emissions can be reduced through the use of catalytic converters. In petrodiesel vehicles, catalytic converters have generally not been included because the sulfur in the fuel destroys them, but biodiesel does not contain sulfur.
According to most sources, biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine or burner without adaptation. It has a higher cetane number of biodiesel compared to petrodiesel, indicating potential for higher engine performance and causing less knocking. Tests have shown that biodiesel has similar or better fuel consumption, horsepower, and torque and haulage rates than conventional diesel; the use of biodiesel complements the working of the catalysator and can help a current EURO-1 motor attain the EURO-111 standards.
Jatropha planted around farms can repel animals, incects & wind
It is true that, because of the solvent power of biodiesel, especially older engines or machines can get clogged, but this is because the biodiesel is actually cleaning it, dissolving the residues left by petrodiesel. Rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles made prior to 1992 may also be degraded, and need to be replaced. Engine efficiency is also increased by its superior lubricating properties, and the more complete combustion of hydrocarbons due to its higher oxygen content (up to 10%). Finally, biofuel is safer to store because of its higher flash point.
One noteworthy drawback of especially undiluted biodiesel (BD100) is its cold-clogging point of 0 degrees Celsius. This is one of the reasons it is usually mixed with conventional diesel, especially in cold countries. This is not a problem, however, in most of India, except in winter in the higher altitudes of the Himalayas.
The argument that biofuels are not energy efficient, due to the oil used to irrigate, fertilize and plow the land is irrelevant in the case of jatropha-- both irrigation and fertilization are generally unnecessary, or its own seedcakes can be used as fertilizer. The energy efficiency of the current agricultural and industrial production process is reported (in Nicaragua) to be between 1:3.75 and 1:5.
Another common objection to biomass energy production is that it could divert agricultural production away from food crops in a hungry world. Using wastelands, however, instead of farmlands, solves the "food or fuel" dilemma-- these lands are unsuitable for growing other crops. Also, if a biofuel like jatropha is grown, drought and water shortages which would ruin food crops can be survived; if grown in addition to food crops, as mentioned above, it can literally protect them from animals, insects and desertification, and its seedcakes can be used as fertilizer.
Once fuel is extracted from Jatropha, the remaining plant mass is useful as fertilizer and animal feed
The most difficult problem is, as always, cost. In remote areas, where fossil fuels are not readily available, biodiesel is already a feasible alternative, especially considering wasteland reclamation, rural employment and income generation from jatropha biodiesel and its by-products. This is important to consider in India, where electricity is always in short supply-- biodiesel can power generators, lights and farm equipment as well as cars. On the current global market, however, biodiesel generally cannot directly compete with petrodiesel, at least not yet.
The main reason for this is that biodiesel is not being produced on a large scale. The industry is a fragmented network of small companies whose costs and prices are high. Two British biodiesel companies, however, found a solution by listing their company names on the stock market in order to fund large, efficient production facilities, and passing the savings on to consumers. In other parts of the world as well, as production increases, the cost differential of biofuels is decreasing steadily.
Ironically, the first diesel engine ever made, in 1893, was powered by peanut oil-- a biofuel. By the 1920's the petroleum industry had all but eliminated the biofuel infrastructure and usurped the market with petrodiesel because it was cheaper to produce. Even then, the engine's inventor, Rudolf Diesel, maintained that "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today, but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as petroleum and the coal-tar products of the present time."
Now, almost a century later, the world has no choice but to listen or perish in pollution and war. As time goes by and global reserves of fossil fuels shrink, the biofuel industries have to grow up fast, and India is in a good position to step up to the opportunity. The government should give tax concessions or other financial incentives to biofuels companies and consumers to speed up the progress, and urge other nations to do the same. With biofuels, we can help heal and preserve the air, the land, our own physical health and peace.
Brook and Gaurav Bhagat are writers and independent filmmakers based in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India.
Strategies and institutional mechanisms for large scale cultivation of Jatropha curcas under agroforestry in the context of the proposed biofuel polic
Strategies and institutional mechanisms for large scale cultivation of Jatropha curcas under agroforestry in the context of the proposed biofuel policy of India. by
Prodyut Bhattacharya and Bharati Joshi,\
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India.
Abstract :This paper analyses strategies and institutional mechanisms for taking up large scale Jatropha cultivation under various agro forestry combinations. It stresses the fact that such an initiative besides being in tune with the country's proposed biofuel policy, would also generate additional sources of income and employment for the country's rural populace. This would add to the ecological benefits derived in form of soil and water conservation and improved microclimate for crop production in areas where Jatropha would be planted.Published in ENVIS bulletin on Grassland Ecosystems and Agroforestry 1(2): pages 58-72
Background : India is the second most populous country of the world and meeting its energy requirements in a sustainable manner continues to be a major challenge. India produces only about 30% of its annual crude oil requirement of 105 MT, relying on imports to the tune of Rs. 90,000 crores for meeting the remaining requirement.Needless to say, the oil import bill has serious consequences for the Indian economy. In this scenario, giving biofuels a serious consideration as potential energy sources of the future is the most logical step. Already, in the developed countries of the world, such as the US, Australia, Germany and France, biodiesel is being extracted from plants like saffola, sunflower, soyabean, etc, which are essentially edible in India. Our country also provides favourable climatic conditions to harbour a vast resource of non-edible or wild-seed crops like Jatropha curcas (Ratanjot), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) and Madhuca indica (Mahua). From the seeds of these species oil can be derived and developed as biodiesel depending on site-specific requirements. But commercial cultivation of these plants specifically for this use is yet to begin.The backdrop for brain storming on the agenda of biofuels has rightly been provided by the 10th Five-year Plan Document of the Government of India that views biofuels from the multi dimensional perspective of depleting fossil fuel resources, environmental health, National energy security and rural employment avenues.The document proposes to cultivate Jatropha on 5 million hecters of degraded waste lands of the country. Over 200 districts in 19 potential States of the country have been identified on the basis of waste lands availability, rural poverty ratio and agro climatic conditions for taking up Jatropha cultivation.A consultation workshop held at the Indian Institute of Science (IIS), Bangalore on 30 November 2002 set the ball rolling by initiating brain storming over the potential of biofuels among multiple stake holders. The deliberations of this consultation fed into the Draft National Biofuel Policy (SUTRA 2003) prepared for the All India Seminar on National Policy for Non-Edible Oils as Biofuels, held at the IIS during 1-2 February 2003. The draft policy rightly identifies the following key issues to justify the need to promote biofuels and to have a National Policy in this regard:
There is a long-standing need to increase India's self-sufficiency in oil for both fuel security and for reducing the country's oil import bill that cost us Rs. 96,000 crore in the year 2000.
It is high time to harness the potential offered by biofuels extracted from non edible oilseeds, such as Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata.
Biofuel development venture can be decentralised and small industries can be located even in the rural areas, thus, increasing opportunities for rural income generation and employment.
With over 65% of the country's agriculture-dependent population residing in villages, there is vast potential for utilising the non edible oilseeds. cake (left after oil extraction) as organic manure cum insecticide.
Biofuels are free from the environmental concerns haunting fossil fuel combustion as they do not pollute the air. Rather, the biofuel producing plants sequester carbon from the atmosphere. That biofuel is an instrument of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and will add a feather to India's cap, the country being a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol.
Focusing on one of the potential biodiesel yielding plants, i.e., Jatropha curcas here, it is a wild growing hardy plant well adapted to harsh conditions of soil and climate. It is adapted to a wide range of climates and soils and can grow on almost any type of soil, even on the poorest stony soils and rock crevices. Its water requirement is extremely low and it can withstand long periods of drought by shedding most of its leaves to reduce transpiration losses. It is easily propagated by seeds or cuttings and grows rapidly. It may be cut or lopped at any desired height and is suited as a hedge plant. In India, J. curcas is found in almost all the states and is generally grown as a live fence for protection of agricultural fields. The beans of Jatropha contain viscous, non-edible oil, which can be used for the production of high quality soap, as a raw material for cosmetic products, as fuel for cooking and lighting and as a substitute for diesel fuel. The soap manufacturing units in the country have been looking for an alternative to edible oil for the manufacture of soap, for the last 7-8 years. J. curcas seeds possess about 35% non-edible oil; they thus potentially provide the answer to overcome the scarcity of raw material needed for the cosmetics manufacturing units.The Government now proposes to take up the biofuel development program mainly in degraded areas of the country that almost invariably coincide with areas of abject poverty. As a result of this programme, it is estimated that around 50% of the wages in cash (i.e., Rs. 46,650 million) and rest in the form of food grains would trickle down to the poor.Land Options for Jatropha Cultivation : India has approximately 329 million hecters of land area of which the estimated land available and suitable for tree growing and where trees do not exist is estimated to be around 84 million hecters (Chambers et al. 1989) (Table 1).Cultivated lands, farm bunds and boundaries considered in the Table 1 above, that are almost entirely privately owned, are probably the ones least accessible for Jatropha cultivation. Much of this land is owned by large farmers who have the resources to intensively cultivate their farmlands. As such, unless they perceive significant economic gains in planting Jatropha, it would be practically impossible for them to alter the land use pattern. Studies indicate that such a diversion of land use tends to displace labour and substitute male for female employment (ILO 1988, Malmer 1987, FAO 1988). This leaves the farm bunds and boundaries of both categories of farmers to be targeted for planting Jatropha as that would supplement the existing livelihood strategy of the farmers.The degraded forest lands provide potential sites for promoting Jatropha cultivation by dovetailing the Biofuel promotion initiative with the existing JFM program. Of the 5 million hecters of degraded waste lands that the National Mission on Jatropha plans to cover during the 10th plan period, 2 million hecters would be degraded forest land to be revegetated by involving Joint Forest Management Committees and Social Forestry Programs (Economic Times 2002).Also, the currently available non-forest lands to the tune of 48 million hecters (Table 1) can be targeted for Jatropha cultivation. The planting area available on farm bunds and along railway tracks, canals and rivers would require lesser investments in terms of inputs for increasing productivity as they generally have good moisture and are more productive than revenue waste lands.Even if we target about 10% of the 84 million hecters area (Table 1) available for tree planting in the country for Jatropha plantation (as discrete trees, tree rows, block plantations, fencing and boundaries, etc.) we can look forward to cover around 8.4 million hecters area, as shown in Table 2.Plausible Crop Combinations and Systems for Jatropha Cultivation : According to the topography, soil profile and prevailing agro climatic conditions in an area, Jatropha can be combined with other suitable species comprising the agricultural, horticultural, pastoral and/or silvicultural components to result in an ecologically viable, economically profitable and socially acceptable agro forestry system. By evolving, promoting and adopting Jatropha based agro forestry systems it is possible to improve the socioeconomic conditions in rural areas and to transform the National energy scenario and the ecological landscape. Some of the plausible crop combinations for both waste lands and cultivable lands are discussed below.Wastelands : Jatropha can be grown successfully in most categories of culturable waste lands except water logged lands and marshes and deserts, and the potential crop combinations for these areas are as discussed below.Unutilised / Partially Utilised / Mismanaged Wastelands : Such waste lands include ravines and undulating uplands.
Ravines: Around 4 million hecters of waste lands in the country are categorised as gullies and ravines. In the ravine areas, Jatropha can be intercropped with medicinal plants like Asparagus racemosus (Shatawar) and Commiphora mukul (Gugul) at 2ft X 2ft spacing to serve the additional twin causes of ex situ conservation of medicinal plants and ravine area reclamation (Bhattacharya and Bhagat 2002). Also, the medicinal plants so produced can be used to meet the traditional health care needs of the local community. Another potential crop for such areas is Evolvulus alsinoides (Shankhpushpi) that is abundant in waste lands. Allelopathic studies have revealed that extracts and leachates of the whole herb of Shankhpushpi are effective in promoting the growth of Jatropha curcas and also hasten germination and initial seedling vigour (Oudhia 2001).
Undulating uplands : For slope stabilisation and improving soil productivity on undulating uplands, Jatropha can be combined with various grass and tree species resulting in the following models:Model (i) Contour Hedgerows of Jatropha with Glyricidia and Subabul : The contour hedgerow farming technology is based on a modification of the agro forestry system in which Nitrogen-fixing hedgerow species are planted along the contours with desired food crops and other useful species in the alleys. In the middle and lower slopes, Glyricidia and Leucaena leucocephala (for fodder) can be planted along the contours with Jatropha in the alleys.Model (ii) Jatropha intercropped with grasses, tubers and vegetables : On the denuded hill slopes, Jatropha can also be combined with grasses and legumes like Andropogon, Stylosanthes hamata, Guinea, Hybrid Napier, Brachiara humidicola, Congo signal (that help consolidate the soil), tuber crops like Manihot esculenta (Cassava) and Tapioca; and vegetables like Pumpkin and Moringa (5m X 5m) plantation.Various conservation structures like field trench-bunds, broad-based trenches and loose boulder plugs can also be combined with the models given above for effective soil erosion control and for improving soil productivity.
Wastelands based on Ecological Limitations : These can be categorised as shifting cultivation areas, degraded pastures / grazing lands, mining spoils and degraded forestlands.
Shifting Cultivation Areas In India : It is estimated that around 11 million hecters area is under shifting cultivation and this system is still an important source of livelihood for around 2 million tribals in the high rainfall regions. Paddy is the predominant crop in these lands; oilseeds are cultivated in the first year and paddy and millets in the second year in medium rainfall areas. In the low rainfall regions, paddy is never preferred; instead, varieties of millets are sown side by side with vegetable pulses. Depending on the local requirements for agricultural crops, fodder and fruits, the following Jatropha-based agro forestry combinations can be adopted, especially in the mid- and foot hills:Model (i) Jatropha mixed with fruit trees : Common edible fruit yielding trees having local preference and market demand, like mango, Aonla, cashew-nut, guava, sapota and pineapple can be planted at 4m X 4m spacing and interplanted at different storeys with Jatropha at 1m X 1m.Model (ii) Jatropha in mixed plantation with Teak / Neem / Karanj / Subabul : Teak (Tectona grandis), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) and Jatropha can be planted as a mixed plantation at the spacement of 4m X 4m, in alternate rows. Within the interspace, subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) can be planted at 1m X 1m. Subabul trees would yield fodder and fuel wood and also fix nitrogen; Neem and Karanj yield non-edible but commercially important oil. Thus, the overall plantation mixture is capable of combining soil improvement and erosion control benefits with long-term economic gains.Model (iii) Jatropha mixed with fodder trees and grasses : In order to ensure regular fodder supply for cattle from indigenous species and for erecting vegetative barriers to conserve soil, various species of grasses and fodder trees can be planted at 4m X 4m spacing and interplanted with Jatropha at the spacement of 1m X 1m. The potential grass species are Andropogon, Dinanath, Guinea, Hybrid Napier, Congo signal, Stylosanthes hamata and Vetiveria zizanioides.
Degraded Pastures / Grazing Lands : For rehabilitation of degraded pastures, a suitable silvipastoral system would consist of various species of grasses and fodder trees (like Leucaena leucocephala and Khejri) can be planted at 4m X 4m spacing and interplanted with Jatropha at the spacement of 1m X 1m. The potential grass species are Andropogon, Guinea, Hybrid Napier, Congo signal, Stylosanthes hamata and Vetiveria zizanioides. Alternatively, Jatropha can be planted only on the bunds / bund-cum-trench combination with other non-browsable plants like Agave sp., Prosopis juliflora, etc. acting as effective biofences.
Mined out Areas and Overburden Dumps : In India, it is estimated that around 6,83,671 hecters is under mining leases in 19 States, specially in Rajasthan, Bihar and Orissa. Jatropha presents itself as a potential crop for such mined area reclamation efforts. It can also be planted as part of watershed management programs, owing to its soil binding properties and capacity to gain a foothold even in a thin soil cover. In the mined out areas and over burdens, Jatropha can be cultivated with other hardy species known to grow successfully in such sites like - Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Acacia auriculiformis, Prosopis juliflora, Gravillea robusta (Silver Oak) and Cassia siamea.
Degraded Forestlands : In highly degraded forest lands and other plain areas, Jatropha can be grown as a pure block plantation or with Nyctanthes arbortristis (Harsingar), Azadirachta indica (Neem) and Vitex negundo (Nirgudi). Earlier it was believed that Jatropha could be grown in closer spacing of 2m X 2m, but this resulted in mutual shading and consequent reduction in yield when the plants matured. Therefore, a wider spacing of 3m X 3m is suggested (BAIF 2003, ICFRE, undated).
Farm lands : While targeting private farmlands and bunds for plantation of Jatropha or any other nationally relevant species, it must be kept in mind that people's choice of species for planting is paramount. The plausible Jatropha based agroforestry combinations in these areas have been discussed below.On irrigated farmlands : In plain areas with good soil depth, receiving optimum rainfall and with facilities of irrigation, Jatropha can be planted as a block plantation at a spacement of 2.5m X 2.5m, mixed with one or more of the following species, grown at the spacing indicated against each species:
Gmelina arborea (Gamhar) 8mX8m
Dalbergia sissoo (Sheesham) 5m X 4m
Azadirachta indica (Neem) 7m X 5m
Tectona grandis (Teak) 4m X 4m
Emblica officinalis (Aonla) 5m X 3m
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 3.5m X 2m
Moringa oleifera (Munga) 3m X 3m
This would be a purely commercial model, aimed at yielding economic returns higher than the previous land-use.On drier farm lands : On primarily rain fed farm lands with poorer soil depth and productivity and located in areas receiving less than 200 mm annual rainfall, interplanting of Jatropha can be done with Mulberry (Morus alba) at 2m X 2m spacing in alternate rows. The foliage of mulberry trees can be used for rearing silkworms, providing an additional source of income to the farmers.Another alternative for such areas is interplanting of Jatropha with Ber (Zizyphus sp.) at 2m X 2m spacing in alternate rows. Ber trees are hardy, yield fruits which are locally consumed and marketed and are also popular hosts for Lac cultivation. Combined with the petroplant Jatropha, Ber and Lac constitute a profitable planting model.Other Potential Areas : There is great potential for promoting Jatropha plantation along railway tracks and canal-banks, on roadsides, and also on farm bunds. The potential crop combinations for these areas have been discussed below.Jatropha for Boundary and Roadside Plantations : Often the Jatropha plant is used to demarcate boundaries, because the plant is not browsed by animals and has a long life. In combination with other useful, oil yielding trees like Madhuca indica (Mahua), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) and Azadirachta indica (Neem), Jatropha can be planted along railway lines, on roadsides and canal banks, at 5 m spacing. It is also possible to plant double rows of these plants with 1.5 m inter-row spacing, in the fashion of wind breaks or shelter-belts, specially in areas experiencing high velocity winds, to protect agricultural crops and the fertile top soil from wind inflicted damage and erosion, respectively.Because of its drought tolerance and its lateral roots near the surface the Jatropha plant is often used for anti erosion measures. This may be either in the form of plantation together with other species, or in the form of hedges to reduce wind speed and protect small earth dams or stone walls against runoff water. Together with Vetiver and Lemon grass, the Jatropha hedges can build up an effective filtering system that reduces the erosion of surface soil by runoff water. After only a short time terraces are formed.Jatropha for Biofencing : Jatropha is popular among farmers in the States of Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh as a live fence for protecting homesteads, orchards and farms, as it is non-browseable and has a long life. Biofences of Jatropha can supply seeds and provide other economic and ecological benefits to the farmers. When planted in the trench-cum-bund combinations, Jatropha can prove to be an effective defence against cattle and other trespassers, specially in case of < 5-year-old plantations. Jatropha can be planted in combination with the following species suitable for biofencing and capable of yielding other direct and indirect benefits to the farmers:
Agave sisalana (for rope fiber + protection)
Euphorbia sp. (for protection)
Erythrina indica (for plant-based dye + protection)
Ipomoea sp. (for boundary)
Prosopis juliflora (for protection + fuelwood + charcoal)
Glyricidia (for boundary + Glyricidia as a Nitrogen fixing fodder species)
Institutional Options for Jatropha Promotion : There is ample scope and even necessity for involving diverse institutions in various stages of Jatropha production, promotion and rural livelihoods development. The list below helps us to identify the main kinds of institutions that can be involved in Jatropha production, promotion and rural livelihoods, development:
Community-level Institutions
Non Governmental Rural Development Organisations (NGOs)
Technical Institutes, Academic Institutions and Universities
Government Organisations/Departments
Banks and other Micro-finance Institutions
Planners and Policy-makers.
The potential roles and responsibilities of these different types of organisations have been discussed below.Community-Level Institutions : Unlike the traditional oil sector that involves huge investments and complicated institutional arrangements, development of biofuel from non-edible oilseeds of plants can be completely decentralised, with raw material (i.e. seed) production and processing done entirely by community based small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs). The existing institutions can be involved after adequate capacity enhancement and within the framework of a well-developed strategy, to establish Jatropha plantations, to extract and process its oil and form biodiesel and to market it.The community level institutions that can be plausible and worthy candidates to perform these tasks include Community Forestry Groups, Self Help Groups, Panchayats and Minor Forest Produce Societies, to name a few. The strengths of these groups and their suitability for taking up the biodiesel production challenge have been discussed below.Community Forestry Groups : These groups can be State-promoted or self-initiated. In the former category, presently there are more than 65,000 Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) in over 40,000 villages of the country, protecting over 15 million hecters of Government owned forests (Bhattacharya and Prasad 2001). Apart from these, there are several instances of self-initiated forest protection groups (SIFPGs) and conservation efforts by local communities in different parts of the country, viz. Orissa, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and from the Northeast. The JFMCs as well as the SIFPGs represent the right institutions to be supported, trained and promoted for taking up the following activities related to Jatropha-based biodiesel development:
Development of Jatropha planting stock in decentralised nurseries
Plantation of Jatropha on private and common lands
Scientific harvest of Jatropha seeds
Local processing of Jatropha.
Self Help Groups : Starting in the 1980s due to the path breaking efforts of a few NGOs, State Governments and banks, including National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), the Self Help Group (SHG) movement has taken firm roots in many parts of the country.Though a detailed analysis of the strengths of an SHG-based rural development approach is beyond the mandate of this paper, it can be safely said that SHGs can be recognised as a socially viable unit for implementation of Jatropha based biodesel development programme. The potential roles that the SHGs can perform in such a program are as follows:
Development of Jatropha planting stock in individual / group nurseries
Providing microcredit services to interested members for establishing Jatropha-based SME
Establishing small processing units for Jatropha seed-oil extraction
Constructing and renting out Jatropha seed storage facilities
Local marketing of Jatropha oil and seed-cake through Federations.
Panchayats : Today, Panchayat as a rural local government institution in India forms a permanent part of the structure of governance of the country. The potential role of Panchayats in establishment of successful Jatropha production and utilisation systems is as follows:
Provide funds and logistics for establishment of decentralised Jatropha nurseries
Devote common lands under their control to Jatropha cultivation
Ensure equitable benefit sharing from Jatropha-based SMEs
Invest in establishment and maintenance of Jatropha processing units at Block and District levels
Facilitate marketing and distribution of Jatropha-based biodiesel.
Minor Forest Produce Societies : The NTFP collection and marketing chain of formally recognised institutions like State Minor Forest Produce Federation along with their district level and village level units can provide a ready-made community organisation and marketing channel for Jatropha seeds as well as oil. Moving a step further, this arrangement can also bring more benefits to the Jatropha entrepreneurs if the example of Madhya Pradesh (MP), the first State of the country to decide upon the transfer of NTFP ownership to the Gram Sabhas, the local level PRIs, is emulated.Tribal Co-operative Marketing Development Federation of India Limited (TRIFED) can also play an important role in procurement and sale of Jatropha seeds and oil with a view to pay remunerative prices to the tribal cultivators, on the basis of correct weighment and premium on quality.The co-operative federation model can be replicated for promoting Jatropha-based SME development in rural areas especially in the forested zones of the country. It has to be kept in mind that local processing of Jatropha seeds for oil extraction would be a necessary complement to local farming, if we want the communities to take advantage of the emerging biodiesel market and put more money in their pockets. Thus, decentralising the production of Jatropha seeds as well as oil is strongly suggested.Development of local processing capacity will invariably reduce Jatropha seed storage and transportation costs and allows better and profitable conversion. Also, there would be more effective utilisation of by-products like the Jatropha seed-cake and this internal circulation will also retain margins within the community. The formation of the following institutions can be envisaged.
Jatropha primary societies at the village or cluster levels. This would grow and collect Jatropha seeds and market the seed-cakes
Jatropha District Unions at the District level, that would process the seeds to extract oil, modify it to form biodiesel and supply back the seed-cakes to primary societies for marketing
Jatropha Federations at the State level, for packaging and marketing of Jatropha-based biodiesel at the National and International level
A National Mission on Jatropha to facilitate research, technology development and transfer, production, promotion and export of Jatropha-based biodiesel.
Non Governmental Rural Development Organisations : The non-governmental rural development organisations or NGOs are increasingly playing an important role in the delivery of various developmental services in different parts of the world, and India is no exception. It is envisaged that the rural development organisations can be entrusted with the following roles in the Jatropha-based diesel promotion programme in the country :
Community organisation into SHGs and other village level organisations, and strengthening of existing institutions.
Mass mobilisation of communities for taking up Jatropha cultivation.
Linking the community institutions with Jatropha-related developmental programmes of other agencies.
Providing hand-holding support to Jatropha nursery growers (e.g., women groups) and cultivators.
Creating awareness of the importance of microcredit within the Jatropha growers and local processing groups.
Functioning as a financial intermediary to make low-cost and risk loans available to Jatropha-entrepreneurs through leveraged bank-NGO-client credit lines.
Providing micro enterprise development support to the community for Jatropha based SME development in rural areas.
Making marketing information accessible to Jatropha growers and rural biodiesel manufacturers.
Technical Institutes, Academic Institutions and Universities : There is tremendous scope for involving technical and academic institutions of the country for meeting the software requirements with regard to Jatropha cultivation, management, processing, packaging and marketing. The specific areas where interventions from these organisations would be most needed include:
Research and technology development for Jatropha cultivation and its management as an agroforestry crop.
Mass mobilisation and extension / dissemination of cultivation packages among rural communities.
Research for development of other innovative products from Jatropha.
Development of alternative and appropriate technology for maximising Jatropha oil yield / expression.
Developing basic financial management and entrepreneurial skills and demand orientation among Jatropha SME owners in rural areas.
Imparting skills to the rural youth in networking for accessing market information and increasing their ability to identify opportunities for product diversification.
Increasing the rural entrepreneurs that ability to understand and address quality requirements in the oil industry.
In the above context, the agriculture and forestry departments of various Indian Universities, the Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun and Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal can play a key role for strengthening the biological production process of Jatropha-based biodiesel. Technical institutes like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Technical Institutes (ITIs) can help in various stages of machinery and technology development. They can also support establishment of decentralised workshops for maintenance and repair of oil extraction machinery and equipment. Management development institutions like the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), the Entrepreneurship Development Institute (EDI) in Ahmedabad, Indian Institute of Quality Management (IIQM), Jaipur and the Centre for Entrepreneurship Development in Madhya Pradesh (CEDMAP) can play a crucial role in various aspects human resource development in rural areas.Government Organisations / Departments : The role of the Government in promoting Jatropha fuelled rural development cannot be over emphasised. The departments envisioned to perform key roles in this respect include those looking after Agriculture and Watershed Development, Forest, Revenue, Panchayats and Rural Development, Women and Child Development, Employment and Training and Small Scale Industries. The ubiquitous presence, network expanse, fund availability, philanthropic outlook and ability to work at a larger scale are the unique properties with which the Government Departments and Agencies are bestowed.The intrinsic strengths of Government institutions can be put to use effectively and meticulously for promoting Jatropha cultivation, processing and marketing, as mentioned below:
Revenue and Forest Departments can estimate and allocate vacant and waste lands under their ownership for Jatropha cultivation.
The Departments related to Panchayat, Tribal Welfare, Rural Development and Women and Child Development can promote the involvement of the poor and the socio economically marginalised sections of the society in Jatropha based income generation ventures by planning for priority establishment of such SMEs in needy areas. These Departments should also take up the responsibility of ensuring equitable distribution of benefits from Jatropha based SMEs in rural areas.
The Departments concerned with Rural Employment and Training should focus on building capacities of the rural youth to take advantage of the Jatropha promotion wave, establish Jatropha based SMEs and earn profits in a sustainable manner. Sincere efforts should be made for linking the rural entrepreneurs, individuals as well as groups with knowledge networks and management and technical institutions.
Several resource-specific marketing and trade agencies like the State MFP Federations, TRIFED, State Forest Development Agencies and Large Area Multi-purpose Societies (LAMPs) have already been established in different parts of the country. Functioning in a well-co-ordinated manner, these agencies can assist the rural people to produce and market the Jatropha seeds and oil produced by them in National markets at remunerative prices. They can organise State and National level Jatropha (seed and oil)- buyer-seller meets and regularly publish a Directory of these buyers and sellers.
Banks and Non-Banking Financial Institutions (NBFIs) : The informal financial sources generally include funds available from family sources or local moneylenders. The prohibitive cost of loans disbursed by the local money lenders and increasing incidences of misappropriation of funds by Chit Funds and Bishis diminish the suitability of these credit options for any organised Jatropha cultivation and processing venture. Lately, few of the NGOs have also initiated savings and credit programs for their target groups, under the community based financial systems (CBFS) approach.The formal sources of finance can be further categorised as Banks and the Non Banking Financial Institutions (NBFIs). Traditionally, the formal sector Banking Institutions in India have been serving only the needs of the commercial sector and providing loans for middle and upper income groups. The Government has taken several initiatives to strengthen the institutional rural credit system. Apart from commercial banks, the other front runner banks engaged in disbursing credit in rural areas include NABARD, Rural Development Banks (RDBs), Land Development Banks and Co-operative Banks (CBs).Today, there are around 250-300 Indian NGOs engaged in micro-finance, each with 50-100 Self Help Groups (SHG) and around 20-30 NGOs have started forming SHG Federations. The Jatropha entrepreneurs can target microfinance wholesalers like NABARD, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh-New Delhi and the Friends of Women's World Banking in Ahmedabad. They should benefit from loans offered under various schemes by public sector banks as well as NBFIs as in spite of a change in the legislation and attitude of banks, they still cannot sufficiently meet the demand for rural credit to start micro-enterprise.Planners and Policy-Makers : Capitalising on the mandate provided by the 10th Plan document regarding Jatropha based promotion, as also the insights provided by the draft Biofuel policy would not be possible unless the field level interventions are well planned and are supported by an enabling policy environment. Favourable programme framework and policy environment would be required not only with reference to energy, but also in case of policies affecting land (forest, revenue and the commons), microcredit and microfinance, training and education of rural entrepreneurs. The overall thrust should be on:
Making Jatropha cultivation a low-risk venture with attractive returns.
Providing Jatropha-cultivators and SME owners with a lobbying power to influence legislation and services provided by identified institutions.
Promoting and recognising endeavours to build technical capacities of rural entrepreneurs.
Evolving a pricing and promotional strategy that would make biodiesel an attractive choice for the energy consumers.
On the basis of the above discussion, we can identify the following types of materials / resources (or the hardware), technical knowledge plus skills (or the software) and other support that would be required for achieving the National goals as mentioned in the draft Bio-fuel Policy:
(i) Ensured availability of hardware, i.e.,
High quality planting material of Jatropha and other cultivation inputs.
Affordable and alternative technology for harvest and post-harvest storage.
Processing and packaging technology for both seeds and oil.
(ii) Adequate provision of finance, i.e.,
Microfinance for villagers to take up Jatropha cultivation (includes funds for nursery development).
Low-cost loans for oil extraction in small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs).
Fund availability for packaging, marketing and promotion of Jatrophabased products.
Funds for research and technology development in Jatropha
(iii) Continued guidance and support for accessing software, i.e.,
Technical knowledge and skills in Jatropha cultivation and scientific harvest of seeds.
Technical knowledge of operating and maintaining oil extraction machinery.
Entrepreneurial skills and demand orientation for SME owners.
Ability to understand and address quality standards required by the oil industry.
Confidence and attitude to approach buyers for Jatropha oil and other byproducts.
Basic knowledge of marketing concepts.
Skills to network for accessing market information and ability to identify opportunities for product diversification.
(iv) Facilitating policy environment, i.e.,
Co-ordination and co-operation between various Government institutions, non profit organisations and private players under the umbrella of an All India Co-ordinated Project on Jatropha.
Jatropha-specific lending schemes for supporting investment in its cultivation by communities.
Tax relaxation, low-cost loan provision and other financial incentives for promoting Jatropha-based SME development.
Providing subsidy for popularisation of Jatropha-derived biodiesel and for making it a cheaper alternative to normal diesel.
Conclusion : Jatropha curcas holds immense untapped opportunities for farmers and rural entrepreneurs to make money and for the populace to replace diesel with home grown, environmental friendly biodiesel. The biodiesel revolution would go a long way in reducing the oil import bill of the country as more and more people substitute the fossil fuels with non-edible oil from plants like Jatropha to meet their household and commercial energy needs. Sufficient land is available for cultivating Jatropha to meet the 5 million hecters target as set in the 10th plan document, the challenge would be to suitably allocate and efficiently utilise this land.Studies are required that would focus as much on yield as on performance of biodiesel, and need to be properly documented. The main challenge of Jatropha promotion in rural areas would come from the communities for whom the scope of petro crop adoption would need to be attractively and profitably packaged along with a demystified plantation and processing technology. Site specific cultivation packages and agro forestry models for Jatropha would need to be developed and mass mobilisation / awareness campaigns designed and implemented to institutionalise the process and to achieve the desired scale of Jatropha plantation in the country.Appropriate strategies and policies would be needed to strengthen Jatropha-based rural livelihoods as they are in tune with the countrywide trend towards diversification of rural economy. Jatropha-based SMEs may consist of non-traditional activities, but unlike many traditional village industries that constituted only secondary and supplementary occupations, these activities can also be promoted and supported as main occupations to meet the country's energy and employment needs.Sincere and result-oriented efforts involving all stake holders in various stages of the planning process as well as implementation would be necessary to achieve the results listed above.References :
BAIF, 2003. Jatropha Revisited, www.baif.com/MptsMar2003_JR.htm.
Bhattacharya P and Bhagat N K B, 2002. Interim Report of the Project on Science & Technology Application for Enhancement of Rural Livelihood: Community based Chambal Ravine Reclamation through Sustainable Management and Cultivation of Asparagus, sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology (Government of India), IIFM, Bhopal (unpublished).
Bhattacharya P and Ram Prasad, 2001. Integrated Options for Forest Management in India, In: Victor M. and A. Barash (2001),
Overview of an International Seminar on Cultivating Forests : Alternative Forest Management Practices and Techniques for Community Forestry, held during 23-25 September 1998, RECOFTC Report No. 17, Bangkok, Thailand.
Chambers R, Saxena N C and Shah T, 1989. To the Hands of the Poor - Water and Trees, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Economic Times, 2002. Government Plans Rs. 17,500 Crores Investment in Biodiesel, Economic Times, Tuesday, December 10, 2002 (online edition).
FAO, 1988. Case studies of Farm Forestry and Wasteland Development in Gujarat, FAO, Bangkok (mimeo).
ICFRE, (undated) Jatropha curcas, FRI, Dehradun.
ILO, 1988. Employment and Income Generation through Social Forestry in India: Review of Issues and Evidence, ILO, Asian Employment Programme (ARTEP), New Delhi.
Malmer P, 1987. Socioeconomic Change in Social Forestry, A Case study of Kovilur village, Tamil Nadu, India, The Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics & Statistics, Uppsala.
Oudhia P, 2001. Shankhpushpi - Medicinal Herbs of Chhattisgarh, India, Having Unknown Traditional Uses XXVII on website www.botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/193_evolvulus.html.
SUTRA, 2003. Draft National Bio-Fuel Policy, prepared for the All India Seminar on National Policy on Non-Edible Oils as Biofuels, held during 1-2 February 2003, at IISC, Bangalore.
Prodyut Bhattacharya and Bharati Joshi,\
Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, India.
Abstract :This paper analyses strategies and institutional mechanisms for taking up large scale Jatropha cultivation under various agro forestry combinations. It stresses the fact that such an initiative besides being in tune with the country's proposed biofuel policy, would also generate additional sources of income and employment for the country's rural populace. This would add to the ecological benefits derived in form of soil and water conservation and improved microclimate for crop production in areas where Jatropha would be planted.Published in ENVIS bulletin on Grassland Ecosystems and Agroforestry 1(2): pages 58-72
Background : India is the second most populous country of the world and meeting its energy requirements in a sustainable manner continues to be a major challenge. India produces only about 30% of its annual crude oil requirement of 105 MT, relying on imports to the tune of Rs. 90,000 crores for meeting the remaining requirement.Needless to say, the oil import bill has serious consequences for the Indian economy. In this scenario, giving biofuels a serious consideration as potential energy sources of the future is the most logical step. Already, in the developed countries of the world, such as the US, Australia, Germany and France, biodiesel is being extracted from plants like saffola, sunflower, soyabean, etc, which are essentially edible in India. Our country also provides favourable climatic conditions to harbour a vast resource of non-edible or wild-seed crops like Jatropha curcas (Ratanjot), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) and Madhuca indica (Mahua). From the seeds of these species oil can be derived and developed as biodiesel depending on site-specific requirements. But commercial cultivation of these plants specifically for this use is yet to begin.The backdrop for brain storming on the agenda of biofuels has rightly been provided by the 10th Five-year Plan Document of the Government of India that views biofuels from the multi dimensional perspective of depleting fossil fuel resources, environmental health, National energy security and rural employment avenues.The document proposes to cultivate Jatropha on 5 million hecters of degraded waste lands of the country. Over 200 districts in 19 potential States of the country have been identified on the basis of waste lands availability, rural poverty ratio and agro climatic conditions for taking up Jatropha cultivation.A consultation workshop held at the Indian Institute of Science (IIS), Bangalore on 30 November 2002 set the ball rolling by initiating brain storming over the potential of biofuels among multiple stake holders. The deliberations of this consultation fed into the Draft National Biofuel Policy (SUTRA 2003) prepared for the All India Seminar on National Policy for Non-Edible Oils as Biofuels, held at the IIS during 1-2 February 2003. The draft policy rightly identifies the following key issues to justify the need to promote biofuels and to have a National Policy in this regard:
There is a long-standing need to increase India's self-sufficiency in oil for both fuel security and for reducing the country's oil import bill that cost us Rs. 96,000 crore in the year 2000.
It is high time to harness the potential offered by biofuels extracted from non edible oilseeds, such as Jatropha curcas and Pongamia pinnata.
Biofuel development venture can be decentralised and small industries can be located even in the rural areas, thus, increasing opportunities for rural income generation and employment.
With over 65% of the country's agriculture-dependent population residing in villages, there is vast potential for utilising the non edible oilseeds. cake (left after oil extraction) as organic manure cum insecticide.
Biofuels are free from the environmental concerns haunting fossil fuel combustion as they do not pollute the air. Rather, the biofuel producing plants sequester carbon from the atmosphere. That biofuel is an instrument of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and will add a feather to India's cap, the country being a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol.
Focusing on one of the potential biodiesel yielding plants, i.e., Jatropha curcas here, it is a wild growing hardy plant well adapted to harsh conditions of soil and climate. It is adapted to a wide range of climates and soils and can grow on almost any type of soil, even on the poorest stony soils and rock crevices. Its water requirement is extremely low and it can withstand long periods of drought by shedding most of its leaves to reduce transpiration losses. It is easily propagated by seeds or cuttings and grows rapidly. It may be cut or lopped at any desired height and is suited as a hedge plant. In India, J. curcas is found in almost all the states and is generally grown as a live fence for protection of agricultural fields. The beans of Jatropha contain viscous, non-edible oil, which can be used for the production of high quality soap, as a raw material for cosmetic products, as fuel for cooking and lighting and as a substitute for diesel fuel. The soap manufacturing units in the country have been looking for an alternative to edible oil for the manufacture of soap, for the last 7-8 years. J. curcas seeds possess about 35% non-edible oil; they thus potentially provide the answer to overcome the scarcity of raw material needed for the cosmetics manufacturing units.The Government now proposes to take up the biofuel development program mainly in degraded areas of the country that almost invariably coincide with areas of abject poverty. As a result of this programme, it is estimated that around 50% of the wages in cash (i.e., Rs. 46,650 million) and rest in the form of food grains would trickle down to the poor.Land Options for Jatropha Cultivation : India has approximately 329 million hecters of land area of which the estimated land available and suitable for tree growing and where trees do not exist is estimated to be around 84 million hecters (Chambers et al. 1989) (Table 1).Cultivated lands, farm bunds and boundaries considered in the Table 1 above, that are almost entirely privately owned, are probably the ones least accessible for Jatropha cultivation. Much of this land is owned by large farmers who have the resources to intensively cultivate their farmlands. As such, unless they perceive significant economic gains in planting Jatropha, it would be practically impossible for them to alter the land use pattern. Studies indicate that such a diversion of land use tends to displace labour and substitute male for female employment (ILO 1988, Malmer 1987, FAO 1988). This leaves the farm bunds and boundaries of both categories of farmers to be targeted for planting Jatropha as that would supplement the existing livelihood strategy of the farmers.The degraded forest lands provide potential sites for promoting Jatropha cultivation by dovetailing the Biofuel promotion initiative with the existing JFM program. Of the 5 million hecters of degraded waste lands that the National Mission on Jatropha plans to cover during the 10th plan period, 2 million hecters would be degraded forest land to be revegetated by involving Joint Forest Management Committees and Social Forestry Programs (Economic Times 2002).Also, the currently available non-forest lands to the tune of 48 million hecters (Table 1) can be targeted for Jatropha cultivation. The planting area available on farm bunds and along railway tracks, canals and rivers would require lesser investments in terms of inputs for increasing productivity as they generally have good moisture and are more productive than revenue waste lands.Even if we target about 10% of the 84 million hecters area (Table 1) available for tree planting in the country for Jatropha plantation (as discrete trees, tree rows, block plantations, fencing and boundaries, etc.) we can look forward to cover around 8.4 million hecters area, as shown in Table 2.Plausible Crop Combinations and Systems for Jatropha Cultivation : According to the topography, soil profile and prevailing agro climatic conditions in an area, Jatropha can be combined with other suitable species comprising the agricultural, horticultural, pastoral and/or silvicultural components to result in an ecologically viable, economically profitable and socially acceptable agro forestry system. By evolving, promoting and adopting Jatropha based agro forestry systems it is possible to improve the socioeconomic conditions in rural areas and to transform the National energy scenario and the ecological landscape. Some of the plausible crop combinations for both waste lands and cultivable lands are discussed below.Wastelands : Jatropha can be grown successfully in most categories of culturable waste lands except water logged lands and marshes and deserts, and the potential crop combinations for these areas are as discussed below.Unutilised / Partially Utilised / Mismanaged Wastelands : Such waste lands include ravines and undulating uplands.
Ravines: Around 4 million hecters of waste lands in the country are categorised as gullies and ravines. In the ravine areas, Jatropha can be intercropped with medicinal plants like Asparagus racemosus (Shatawar) and Commiphora mukul (Gugul) at 2ft X 2ft spacing to serve the additional twin causes of ex situ conservation of medicinal plants and ravine area reclamation (Bhattacharya and Bhagat 2002). Also, the medicinal plants so produced can be used to meet the traditional health care needs of the local community. Another potential crop for such areas is Evolvulus alsinoides (Shankhpushpi) that is abundant in waste lands. Allelopathic studies have revealed that extracts and leachates of the whole herb of Shankhpushpi are effective in promoting the growth of Jatropha curcas and also hasten germination and initial seedling vigour (Oudhia 2001).
Undulating uplands : For slope stabilisation and improving soil productivity on undulating uplands, Jatropha can be combined with various grass and tree species resulting in the following models:Model (i) Contour Hedgerows of Jatropha with Glyricidia and Subabul : The contour hedgerow farming technology is based on a modification of the agro forestry system in which Nitrogen-fixing hedgerow species are planted along the contours with desired food crops and other useful species in the alleys. In the middle and lower slopes, Glyricidia and Leucaena leucocephala (for fodder) can be planted along the contours with Jatropha in the alleys.Model (ii) Jatropha intercropped with grasses, tubers and vegetables : On the denuded hill slopes, Jatropha can also be combined with grasses and legumes like Andropogon, Stylosanthes hamata, Guinea, Hybrid Napier, Brachiara humidicola, Congo signal (that help consolidate the soil), tuber crops like Manihot esculenta (Cassava) and Tapioca; and vegetables like Pumpkin and Moringa (5m X 5m) plantation.Various conservation structures like field trench-bunds, broad-based trenches and loose boulder plugs can also be combined with the models given above for effective soil erosion control and for improving soil productivity.
Wastelands based on Ecological Limitations : These can be categorised as shifting cultivation areas, degraded pastures / grazing lands, mining spoils and degraded forestlands.
Shifting Cultivation Areas In India : It is estimated that around 11 million hecters area is under shifting cultivation and this system is still an important source of livelihood for around 2 million tribals in the high rainfall regions. Paddy is the predominant crop in these lands; oilseeds are cultivated in the first year and paddy and millets in the second year in medium rainfall areas. In the low rainfall regions, paddy is never preferred; instead, varieties of millets are sown side by side with vegetable pulses. Depending on the local requirements for agricultural crops, fodder and fruits, the following Jatropha-based agro forestry combinations can be adopted, especially in the mid- and foot hills:Model (i) Jatropha mixed with fruit trees : Common edible fruit yielding trees having local preference and market demand, like mango, Aonla, cashew-nut, guava, sapota and pineapple can be planted at 4m X 4m spacing and interplanted at different storeys with Jatropha at 1m X 1m.Model (ii) Jatropha in mixed plantation with Teak / Neem / Karanj / Subabul : Teak (Tectona grandis), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) and Jatropha can be planted as a mixed plantation at the spacement of 4m X 4m, in alternate rows. Within the interspace, subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) can be planted at 1m X 1m. Subabul trees would yield fodder and fuel wood and also fix nitrogen; Neem and Karanj yield non-edible but commercially important oil. Thus, the overall plantation mixture is capable of combining soil improvement and erosion control benefits with long-term economic gains.Model (iii) Jatropha mixed with fodder trees and grasses : In order to ensure regular fodder supply for cattle from indigenous species and for erecting vegetative barriers to conserve soil, various species of grasses and fodder trees can be planted at 4m X 4m spacing and interplanted with Jatropha at the spacement of 1m X 1m. The potential grass species are Andropogon, Dinanath, Guinea, Hybrid Napier, Congo signal, Stylosanthes hamata and Vetiveria zizanioides.
Degraded Pastures / Grazing Lands : For rehabilitation of degraded pastures, a suitable silvipastoral system would consist of various species of grasses and fodder trees (like Leucaena leucocephala and Khejri) can be planted at 4m X 4m spacing and interplanted with Jatropha at the spacement of 1m X 1m. The potential grass species are Andropogon, Guinea, Hybrid Napier, Congo signal, Stylosanthes hamata and Vetiveria zizanioides. Alternatively, Jatropha can be planted only on the bunds / bund-cum-trench combination with other non-browsable plants like Agave sp., Prosopis juliflora, etc. acting as effective biofences.
Mined out Areas and Overburden Dumps : In India, it is estimated that around 6,83,671 hecters is under mining leases in 19 States, specially in Rajasthan, Bihar and Orissa. Jatropha presents itself as a potential crop for such mined area reclamation efforts. It can also be planted as part of watershed management programs, owing to its soil binding properties and capacity to gain a foothold even in a thin soil cover. In the mined out areas and over burdens, Jatropha can be cultivated with other hardy species known to grow successfully in such sites like - Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Acacia auriculiformis, Prosopis juliflora, Gravillea robusta (Silver Oak) and Cassia siamea.
Degraded Forestlands : In highly degraded forest lands and other plain areas, Jatropha can be grown as a pure block plantation or with Nyctanthes arbortristis (Harsingar), Azadirachta indica (Neem) and Vitex negundo (Nirgudi). Earlier it was believed that Jatropha could be grown in closer spacing of 2m X 2m, but this resulted in mutual shading and consequent reduction in yield when the plants matured. Therefore, a wider spacing of 3m X 3m is suggested (BAIF 2003, ICFRE, undated).
Farm lands : While targeting private farmlands and bunds for plantation of Jatropha or any other nationally relevant species, it must be kept in mind that people's choice of species for planting is paramount. The plausible Jatropha based agroforestry combinations in these areas have been discussed below.On irrigated farmlands : In plain areas with good soil depth, receiving optimum rainfall and with facilities of irrigation, Jatropha can be planted as a block plantation at a spacement of 2.5m X 2.5m, mixed with one or more of the following species, grown at the spacing indicated against each species:
Gmelina arborea (Gamhar) 8mX8m
Dalbergia sissoo (Sheesham) 5m X 4m
Azadirachta indica (Neem) 7m X 5m
Tectona grandis (Teak) 4m X 4m
Emblica officinalis (Aonla) 5m X 3m
Eucalyptus camaldulensis 3.5m X 2m
Moringa oleifera (Munga) 3m X 3m
This would be a purely commercial model, aimed at yielding economic returns higher than the previous land-use.On drier farm lands : On primarily rain fed farm lands with poorer soil depth and productivity and located in areas receiving less than 200 mm annual rainfall, interplanting of Jatropha can be done with Mulberry (Morus alba) at 2m X 2m spacing in alternate rows. The foliage of mulberry trees can be used for rearing silkworms, providing an additional source of income to the farmers.Another alternative for such areas is interplanting of Jatropha with Ber (Zizyphus sp.) at 2m X 2m spacing in alternate rows. Ber trees are hardy, yield fruits which are locally consumed and marketed and are also popular hosts for Lac cultivation. Combined with the petroplant Jatropha, Ber and Lac constitute a profitable planting model.Other Potential Areas : There is great potential for promoting Jatropha plantation along railway tracks and canal-banks, on roadsides, and also on farm bunds. The potential crop combinations for these areas have been discussed below.Jatropha for Boundary and Roadside Plantations : Often the Jatropha plant is used to demarcate boundaries, because the plant is not browsed by animals and has a long life. In combination with other useful, oil yielding trees like Madhuca indica (Mahua), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) and Azadirachta indica (Neem), Jatropha can be planted along railway lines, on roadsides and canal banks, at 5 m spacing. It is also possible to plant double rows of these plants with 1.5 m inter-row spacing, in the fashion of wind breaks or shelter-belts, specially in areas experiencing high velocity winds, to protect agricultural crops and the fertile top soil from wind inflicted damage and erosion, respectively.Because of its drought tolerance and its lateral roots near the surface the Jatropha plant is often used for anti erosion measures. This may be either in the form of plantation together with other species, or in the form of hedges to reduce wind speed and protect small earth dams or stone walls against runoff water. Together with Vetiver and Lemon grass, the Jatropha hedges can build up an effective filtering system that reduces the erosion of surface soil by runoff water. After only a short time terraces are formed.Jatropha for Biofencing : Jatropha is popular among farmers in the States of Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh as a live fence for protecting homesteads, orchards and farms, as it is non-browseable and has a long life. Biofences of Jatropha can supply seeds and provide other economic and ecological benefits to the farmers. When planted in the trench-cum-bund combinations, Jatropha can prove to be an effective defence against cattle and other trespassers, specially in case of < 5-year-old plantations. Jatropha can be planted in combination with the following species suitable for biofencing and capable of yielding other direct and indirect benefits to the farmers:
Agave sisalana (for rope fiber + protection)
Euphorbia sp. (for protection)
Erythrina indica (for plant-based dye + protection)
Ipomoea sp. (for boundary)
Prosopis juliflora (for protection + fuelwood + charcoal)
Glyricidia (for boundary + Glyricidia as a Nitrogen fixing fodder species)
Institutional Options for Jatropha Promotion : There is ample scope and even necessity for involving diverse institutions in various stages of Jatropha production, promotion and rural livelihoods development. The list below helps us to identify the main kinds of institutions that can be involved in Jatropha production, promotion and rural livelihoods, development:
Community-level Institutions
Non Governmental Rural Development Organisations (NGOs)
Technical Institutes, Academic Institutions and Universities
Government Organisations/Departments
Banks and other Micro-finance Institutions
Planners and Policy-makers.
The potential roles and responsibilities of these different types of organisations have been discussed below.Community-Level Institutions : Unlike the traditional oil sector that involves huge investments and complicated institutional arrangements, development of biofuel from non-edible oilseeds of plants can be completely decentralised, with raw material (i.e. seed) production and processing done entirely by community based small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs). The existing institutions can be involved after adequate capacity enhancement and within the framework of a well-developed strategy, to establish Jatropha plantations, to extract and process its oil and form biodiesel and to market it.The community level institutions that can be plausible and worthy candidates to perform these tasks include Community Forestry Groups, Self Help Groups, Panchayats and Minor Forest Produce Societies, to name a few. The strengths of these groups and their suitability for taking up the biodiesel production challenge have been discussed below.Community Forestry Groups : These groups can be State-promoted or self-initiated. In the former category, presently there are more than 65,000 Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) in over 40,000 villages of the country, protecting over 15 million hecters of Government owned forests (Bhattacharya and Prasad 2001). Apart from these, there are several instances of self-initiated forest protection groups (SIFPGs) and conservation efforts by local communities in different parts of the country, viz. Orissa, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and from the Northeast. The JFMCs as well as the SIFPGs represent the right institutions to be supported, trained and promoted for taking up the following activities related to Jatropha-based biodiesel development:
Development of Jatropha planting stock in decentralised nurseries
Plantation of Jatropha on private and common lands
Scientific harvest of Jatropha seeds
Local processing of Jatropha.
Self Help Groups : Starting in the 1980s due to the path breaking efforts of a few NGOs, State Governments and banks, including National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), the Self Help Group (SHG) movement has taken firm roots in many parts of the country.Though a detailed analysis of the strengths of an SHG-based rural development approach is beyond the mandate of this paper, it can be safely said that SHGs can be recognised as a socially viable unit for implementation of Jatropha based biodesel development programme. The potential roles that the SHGs can perform in such a program are as follows:
Development of Jatropha planting stock in individual / group nurseries
Providing microcredit services to interested members for establishing Jatropha-based SME
Establishing small processing units for Jatropha seed-oil extraction
Constructing and renting out Jatropha seed storage facilities
Local marketing of Jatropha oil and seed-cake through Federations.
Panchayats : Today, Panchayat as a rural local government institution in India forms a permanent part of the structure of governance of the country. The potential role of Panchayats in establishment of successful Jatropha production and utilisation systems is as follows:
Provide funds and logistics for establishment of decentralised Jatropha nurseries
Devote common lands under their control to Jatropha cultivation
Ensure equitable benefit sharing from Jatropha-based SMEs
Invest in establishment and maintenance of Jatropha processing units at Block and District levels
Facilitate marketing and distribution of Jatropha-based biodiesel.
Minor Forest Produce Societies : The NTFP collection and marketing chain of formally recognised institutions like State Minor Forest Produce Federation along with their district level and village level units can provide a ready-made community organisation and marketing channel for Jatropha seeds as well as oil. Moving a step further, this arrangement can also bring more benefits to the Jatropha entrepreneurs if the example of Madhya Pradesh (MP), the first State of the country to decide upon the transfer of NTFP ownership to the Gram Sabhas, the local level PRIs, is emulated.Tribal Co-operative Marketing Development Federation of India Limited (TRIFED) can also play an important role in procurement and sale of Jatropha seeds and oil with a view to pay remunerative prices to the tribal cultivators, on the basis of correct weighment and premium on quality.The co-operative federation model can be replicated for promoting Jatropha-based SME development in rural areas especially in the forested zones of the country. It has to be kept in mind that local processing of Jatropha seeds for oil extraction would be a necessary complement to local farming, if we want the communities to take advantage of the emerging biodiesel market and put more money in their pockets. Thus, decentralising the production of Jatropha seeds as well as oil is strongly suggested.Development of local processing capacity will invariably reduce Jatropha seed storage and transportation costs and allows better and profitable conversion. Also, there would be more effective utilisation of by-products like the Jatropha seed-cake and this internal circulation will also retain margins within the community. The formation of the following institutions can be envisaged.
Jatropha primary societies at the village or cluster levels. This would grow and collect Jatropha seeds and market the seed-cakes
Jatropha District Unions at the District level, that would process the seeds to extract oil, modify it to form biodiesel and supply back the seed-cakes to primary societies for marketing
Jatropha Federations at the State level, for packaging and marketing of Jatropha-based biodiesel at the National and International level
A National Mission on Jatropha to facilitate research, technology development and transfer, production, promotion and export of Jatropha-based biodiesel.
Non Governmental Rural Development Organisations : The non-governmental rural development organisations or NGOs are increasingly playing an important role in the delivery of various developmental services in different parts of the world, and India is no exception. It is envisaged that the rural development organisations can be entrusted with the following roles in the Jatropha-based diesel promotion programme in the country :
Community organisation into SHGs and other village level organisations, and strengthening of existing institutions.
Mass mobilisation of communities for taking up Jatropha cultivation.
Linking the community institutions with Jatropha-related developmental programmes of other agencies.
Providing hand-holding support to Jatropha nursery growers (e.g., women groups) and cultivators.
Creating awareness of the importance of microcredit within the Jatropha growers and local processing groups.
Functioning as a financial intermediary to make low-cost and risk loans available to Jatropha-entrepreneurs through leveraged bank-NGO-client credit lines.
Providing micro enterprise development support to the community for Jatropha based SME development in rural areas.
Making marketing information accessible to Jatropha growers and rural biodiesel manufacturers.
Technical Institutes, Academic Institutions and Universities : There is tremendous scope for involving technical and academic institutions of the country for meeting the software requirements with regard to Jatropha cultivation, management, processing, packaging and marketing. The specific areas where interventions from these organisations would be most needed include:
Research and technology development for Jatropha cultivation and its management as an agroforestry crop.
Mass mobilisation and extension / dissemination of cultivation packages among rural communities.
Research for development of other innovative products from Jatropha.
Development of alternative and appropriate technology for maximising Jatropha oil yield / expression.
Developing basic financial management and entrepreneurial skills and demand orientation among Jatropha SME owners in rural areas.
Imparting skills to the rural youth in networking for accessing market information and increasing their ability to identify opportunities for product diversification.
Increasing the rural entrepreneurs that ability to understand and address quality requirements in the oil industry.
In the above context, the agriculture and forestry departments of various Indian Universities, the Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun and Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal can play a key role for strengthening the biological production process of Jatropha-based biodiesel. Technical institutes like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Technical Institutes (ITIs) can help in various stages of machinery and technology development. They can also support establishment of decentralised workshops for maintenance and repair of oil extraction machinery and equipment. Management development institutions like the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), the Entrepreneurship Development Institute (EDI) in Ahmedabad, Indian Institute of Quality Management (IIQM), Jaipur and the Centre for Entrepreneurship Development in Madhya Pradesh (CEDMAP) can play a crucial role in various aspects human resource development in rural areas.Government Organisations / Departments : The role of the Government in promoting Jatropha fuelled rural development cannot be over emphasised. The departments envisioned to perform key roles in this respect include those looking after Agriculture and Watershed Development, Forest, Revenue, Panchayats and Rural Development, Women and Child Development, Employment and Training and Small Scale Industries. The ubiquitous presence, network expanse, fund availability, philanthropic outlook and ability to work at a larger scale are the unique properties with which the Government Departments and Agencies are bestowed.The intrinsic strengths of Government institutions can be put to use effectively and meticulously for promoting Jatropha cultivation, processing and marketing, as mentioned below:
Revenue and Forest Departments can estimate and allocate vacant and waste lands under their ownership for Jatropha cultivation.
The Departments related to Panchayat, Tribal Welfare, Rural Development and Women and Child Development can promote the involvement of the poor and the socio economically marginalised sections of the society in Jatropha based income generation ventures by planning for priority establishment of such SMEs in needy areas. These Departments should also take up the responsibility of ensuring equitable distribution of benefits from Jatropha based SMEs in rural areas.
The Departments concerned with Rural Employment and Training should focus on building capacities of the rural youth to take advantage of the Jatropha promotion wave, establish Jatropha based SMEs and earn profits in a sustainable manner. Sincere efforts should be made for linking the rural entrepreneurs, individuals as well as groups with knowledge networks and management and technical institutions.
Several resource-specific marketing and trade agencies like the State MFP Federations, TRIFED, State Forest Development Agencies and Large Area Multi-purpose Societies (LAMPs) have already been established in different parts of the country. Functioning in a well-co-ordinated manner, these agencies can assist the rural people to produce and market the Jatropha seeds and oil produced by them in National markets at remunerative prices. They can organise State and National level Jatropha (seed and oil)- buyer-seller meets and regularly publish a Directory of these buyers and sellers.
Banks and Non-Banking Financial Institutions (NBFIs) : The informal financial sources generally include funds available from family sources or local moneylenders. The prohibitive cost of loans disbursed by the local money lenders and increasing incidences of misappropriation of funds by Chit Funds and Bishis diminish the suitability of these credit options for any organised Jatropha cultivation and processing venture. Lately, few of the NGOs have also initiated savings and credit programs for their target groups, under the community based financial systems (CBFS) approach.The formal sources of finance can be further categorised as Banks and the Non Banking Financial Institutions (NBFIs). Traditionally, the formal sector Banking Institutions in India have been serving only the needs of the commercial sector and providing loans for middle and upper income groups. The Government has taken several initiatives to strengthen the institutional rural credit system. Apart from commercial banks, the other front runner banks engaged in disbursing credit in rural areas include NABARD, Rural Development Banks (RDBs), Land Development Banks and Co-operative Banks (CBs).Today, there are around 250-300 Indian NGOs engaged in micro-finance, each with 50-100 Self Help Groups (SHG) and around 20-30 NGOs have started forming SHG Federations. The Jatropha entrepreneurs can target microfinance wholesalers like NABARD, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh-New Delhi and the Friends of Women's World Banking in Ahmedabad. They should benefit from loans offered under various schemes by public sector banks as well as NBFIs as in spite of a change in the legislation and attitude of banks, they still cannot sufficiently meet the demand for rural credit to start micro-enterprise.Planners and Policy-Makers : Capitalising on the mandate provided by the 10th Plan document regarding Jatropha based promotion, as also the insights provided by the draft Biofuel policy would not be possible unless the field level interventions are well planned and are supported by an enabling policy environment. Favourable programme framework and policy environment would be required not only with reference to energy, but also in case of policies affecting land (forest, revenue and the commons), microcredit and microfinance, training and education of rural entrepreneurs. The overall thrust should be on:
Making Jatropha cultivation a low-risk venture with attractive returns.
Providing Jatropha-cultivators and SME owners with a lobbying power to influence legislation and services provided by identified institutions.
Promoting and recognising endeavours to build technical capacities of rural entrepreneurs.
Evolving a pricing and promotional strategy that would make biodiesel an attractive choice for the energy consumers.
On the basis of the above discussion, we can identify the following types of materials / resources (or the hardware), technical knowledge plus skills (or the software) and other support that would be required for achieving the National goals as mentioned in the draft Bio-fuel Policy:
(i) Ensured availability of hardware, i.e.,
High quality planting material of Jatropha and other cultivation inputs.
Affordable and alternative technology for harvest and post-harvest storage.
Processing and packaging technology for both seeds and oil.
(ii) Adequate provision of finance, i.e.,
Microfinance for villagers to take up Jatropha cultivation (includes funds for nursery development).
Low-cost loans for oil extraction in small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs).
Fund availability for packaging, marketing and promotion of Jatrophabased products.
Funds for research and technology development in Jatropha
(iii) Continued guidance and support for accessing software, i.e.,
Technical knowledge and skills in Jatropha cultivation and scientific harvest of seeds.
Technical knowledge of operating and maintaining oil extraction machinery.
Entrepreneurial skills and demand orientation for SME owners.
Ability to understand and address quality standards required by the oil industry.
Confidence and attitude to approach buyers for Jatropha oil and other byproducts.
Basic knowledge of marketing concepts.
Skills to network for accessing market information and ability to identify opportunities for product diversification.
(iv) Facilitating policy environment, i.e.,
Co-ordination and co-operation between various Government institutions, non profit organisations and private players under the umbrella of an All India Co-ordinated Project on Jatropha.
Jatropha-specific lending schemes for supporting investment in its cultivation by communities.
Tax relaxation, low-cost loan provision and other financial incentives for promoting Jatropha-based SME development.
Providing subsidy for popularisation of Jatropha-derived biodiesel and for making it a cheaper alternative to normal diesel.
Conclusion : Jatropha curcas holds immense untapped opportunities for farmers and rural entrepreneurs to make money and for the populace to replace diesel with home grown, environmental friendly biodiesel. The biodiesel revolution would go a long way in reducing the oil import bill of the country as more and more people substitute the fossil fuels with non-edible oil from plants like Jatropha to meet their household and commercial energy needs. Sufficient land is available for cultivating Jatropha to meet the 5 million hecters target as set in the 10th plan document, the challenge would be to suitably allocate and efficiently utilise this land.Studies are required that would focus as much on yield as on performance of biodiesel, and need to be properly documented. The main challenge of Jatropha promotion in rural areas would come from the communities for whom the scope of petro crop adoption would need to be attractively and profitably packaged along with a demystified plantation and processing technology. Site specific cultivation packages and agro forestry models for Jatropha would need to be developed and mass mobilisation / awareness campaigns designed and implemented to institutionalise the process and to achieve the desired scale of Jatropha plantation in the country.Appropriate strategies and policies would be needed to strengthen Jatropha-based rural livelihoods as they are in tune with the countrywide trend towards diversification of rural economy. Jatropha-based SMEs may consist of non-traditional activities, but unlike many traditional village industries that constituted only secondary and supplementary occupations, these activities can also be promoted and supported as main occupations to meet the country's energy and employment needs.Sincere and result-oriented efforts involving all stake holders in various stages of the planning process as well as implementation would be necessary to achieve the results listed above.References :
BAIF, 2003. Jatropha Revisited, www.baif.com/MptsMar2003_JR.htm.
Bhattacharya P and Bhagat N K B, 2002. Interim Report of the Project on Science & Technology Application for Enhancement of Rural Livelihood: Community based Chambal Ravine Reclamation through Sustainable Management and Cultivation of Asparagus, sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology (Government of India), IIFM, Bhopal (unpublished).
Bhattacharya P and Ram Prasad, 2001. Integrated Options for Forest Management in India, In: Victor M. and A. Barash (2001),
Overview of an International Seminar on Cultivating Forests : Alternative Forest Management Practices and Techniques for Community Forestry, held during 23-25 September 1998, RECOFTC Report No. 17, Bangkok, Thailand.
Chambers R, Saxena N C and Shah T, 1989. To the Hands of the Poor - Water and Trees, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Economic Times, 2002. Government Plans Rs. 17,500 Crores Investment in Biodiesel, Economic Times, Tuesday, December 10, 2002 (online edition).
FAO, 1988. Case studies of Farm Forestry and Wasteland Development in Gujarat, FAO, Bangkok (mimeo).
ICFRE, (undated) Jatropha curcas, FRI, Dehradun.
ILO, 1988. Employment and Income Generation through Social Forestry in India: Review of Issues and Evidence, ILO, Asian Employment Programme (ARTEP), New Delhi.
Malmer P, 1987. Socioeconomic Change in Social Forestry, A Case study of Kovilur village, Tamil Nadu, India, The Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Department of Economics & Statistics, Uppsala.
Oudhia P, 2001. Shankhpushpi - Medicinal Herbs of Chhattisgarh, India, Having Unknown Traditional Uses XXVII on website www.botanical.com/site/column_poudhia/193_evolvulus.html.
SUTRA, 2003. Draft National Bio-Fuel Policy, prepared for the All India Seminar on National Policy on Non-Edible Oils as Biofuels, held during 1-2 February 2003, at IISC, Bangalore.
INNOVATION
Invention is the mother of necessity. - Thorstein Veblen
Innovation:
An invention is useful only to the inventor unless it is offered to the public, however niche that public may be. If the invention improves some product, process or service for the public, then that invention transforms into an innovation.
An innovation can be big or small. Brand-new or just a bit different, it doesn’t matter. An innovation can be clearly complex or seemingly simple. Innovations are often thought of in terms of technical achievement, but can also be a design. The type, industry and style of innovation are irrelevant; an innovation’s impact determines its qualification.
The presence of a genius can help with innovation – it may speed up the end result by having a person who can see and make the future happen. However, innovation is more than the work of any one “Einstein.” Innovation involves the taking of the work of an individual (or team) of inventors and taking it to a broader audience.
The future of many businesses depends upon their ability to innovate. Competition is fierce. Knowledge spreads quickly. The ability of a company to not only keep up with its current business practices, but to exceed its own – and its competition’s – expectations are critical to survival.
Theorem of Innovation:
There are many different theories of innovation: breakthrough, incremental, open source to name but a few. There are arguments stating innovations have to be disruptive to qualify; others argue that any change—as long as it is measurable—qualifies as innovation. Some people want innovations to be open and available to all as a means of challenging even more growth and ingenuity; others believe that new discoveries and paths need to be developed privately and secretly.
Measure of Innovation:
There are no definitive metrics for innovation. Measures of innovative success vary by company and industry. And, as with any type of statistic, the numbers must be looked at closely in order to withstand analysis. The most common metrics are patent creation and R&D.
• Patent creation – Some companies create patent after patent and boast of their innovative capabilities. While this may be well and true for a few, if the numbers of patented products, processes, and services are now making it to the marketplace, then their relevance diminishes.• R&D – This metric assumes that the amount of money spent on research and development directly correlates to the amount of innovative products, processes and services that get to the public.
Innovation:
An invention is useful only to the inventor unless it is offered to the public, however niche that public may be. If the invention improves some product, process or service for the public, then that invention transforms into an innovation.
An innovation can be big or small. Brand-new or just a bit different, it doesn’t matter. An innovation can be clearly complex or seemingly simple. Innovations are often thought of in terms of technical achievement, but can also be a design. The type, industry and style of innovation are irrelevant; an innovation’s impact determines its qualification.
The presence of a genius can help with innovation – it may speed up the end result by having a person who can see and make the future happen. However, innovation is more than the work of any one “Einstein.” Innovation involves the taking of the work of an individual (or team) of inventors and taking it to a broader audience.
The future of many businesses depends upon their ability to innovate. Competition is fierce. Knowledge spreads quickly. The ability of a company to not only keep up with its current business practices, but to exceed its own – and its competition’s – expectations are critical to survival.
Theorem of Innovation:
There are many different theories of innovation: breakthrough, incremental, open source to name but a few. There are arguments stating innovations have to be disruptive to qualify; others argue that any change—as long as it is measurable—qualifies as innovation. Some people want innovations to be open and available to all as a means of challenging even more growth and ingenuity; others believe that new discoveries and paths need to be developed privately and secretly.
Measure of Innovation:
There are no definitive metrics for innovation. Measures of innovative success vary by company and industry. And, as with any type of statistic, the numbers must be looked at closely in order to withstand analysis. The most common metrics are patent creation and R&D.
• Patent creation – Some companies create patent after patent and boast of their innovative capabilities. While this may be well and true for a few, if the numbers of patented products, processes, and services are now making it to the marketplace, then their relevance diminishes.• R&D – This metric assumes that the amount of money spent on research and development directly correlates to the amount of innovative products, processes and services that get to the public.
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